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GREEK LANGUAGE By A. G. KRASSANAKIS Translation in English by ART PERDIKIS |
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_Mechanisms,
rules, parts of speech, history etc of Greek Language _Greek language
is the most easiest and perfect in the world _Greek language
and Greek script (writing, grammars) is base of all European (English, German
etc) languages and scripts (writings) SBN 960 – 85089 – 2 - 5 |
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CHAPTER 1st
THE ELEMENTS OF
WORDS 1. The language and the words Language
is said (called) the total of words that with concrete rules of changes and
combinations between them (with concrete syntax rules and inclination rules)
a population is using in order to understand or to Word
is said (called) the smallest intellectual piece that is a sentence element
hence an element of speech. It is an organized sounding mark (sign) which Proposition
(sentence): I am tailor = Εγώ είμαι ράπτης (Greek) Words:
I (= pronoun), am (verb), tailor (noun), Εγώ (= noun), είμαι (= verb), ράπτης (= noun). The
meaning of words depends on their part of speech and their type (gender,
number, case or person) as well as on their kind of simple derivation or
composition. Their meaning, therefore, is regulated by the relationship of
their components (prefix, root or them, ending or accent in case of simple
word and a’ + b’ components in the case of compound (composite) words. I.e.: Greek: γράφ-ω,
γραφ-ή, συν-γραφ-έας, καλ-ός,ή,οί.. English:
write, writ-ing, writ-er, good, good-s.. (Greek alphabet and
his pronouncing see in end of this
book.) Note: 1) The meaning of a monosyllabic word or a words without constituent
elements concern on what position (place) they are put in a sentence or on
witch word is before them; namely if they are used as conjunctions or as
proverbs i.e.: English: The love, of love &
I love, you love, he love.. Greek: Η μάνα μου μου είπε. Πως θα πας & Είπε πως θα πάμε. Some times the meaning of a word it depends on his tone (which
syllable is toned or if it is with strong or soft tone), see in Greek: πότε & ποτέ, η
& ή, ε & έ… 2) In the syntax of speech the nouns’ meaning becomes also more
specialized by articles, adjectives and participles. i.e.: Greek: Πήρα γράμμα & Πήρα το γράμμα. Μικρό
γράμμα & μεγάλο γράμμα. English: I took letter & I took the letter. Small letter &
large letter 2. The generation of Greek words The Greek
words are formed (borne) by the Greeks, time to time, through: a) Sound making Sound
made words are those made by the imitation of sounds in the environment i.e.:
β... > βοώ, βόμβος, βόμβα... μπαμ – μπουμ > μπαλωθιά, μπαρούτι, μπουμπουνητό, μπόμπα... τρ... > τρίβω, τρίζω, τρυπάνι... γαβ – γαβ > γαβγίζω.... (See in English: bomb, cry, …) b) Derivation: Derived
wards are those who born from another, i.e.: κράτος > κρατικός, (See in English: govern >
government, love > lovely…) c) Composition (syn Compounded
words are those who born from two or more others: δια + κράτος > δια- κρατικός, αστυ-φύλακας… (See
in English: police-man, land-lord, Englishman….) d) Falsification Falsified words are those who born from
other with phthongic alteration (which means addition, abstraction,
transposition-removal or alternation) of a sounding in an ancient word i.e.: χώρα (τόπου) & (χ)ώρα > ώρα (χρόνου), κόνις >(σ)κόνη, πυρία > (σ)πύρ(τ)α, σπόγγος > σφουγγάρι... (See
in English: live (pronunciation “laiv”)> living (pronunciation “livink”),
athlete > athleticism…) e) Abusive derivation which means
changing the: a.
Type (= the gender, the case and the number) of an ancient word, i.e.: αι Αθήναι>η Αθήνα, αι Θήβαι > η θήβα, ο έμπορος, > η έμπορος, ο σύζυγος > η σύζυγος. b. The
part of speech (an adjective turned into a noun, for instance) of an ancient
word, i.e.: κεραμική, μηχανική (Here the words
are adjectives) ... τέχνη > η κεραμική, η μηχανική (Here the words are nouns), Same: παράγωγος > ο παραγωγός, παράγωγη > η παραγωγή, ζεστή > η ζέστη, c. The
typological ending (form) of an ancient word (let’s refer, for instance, the
abolition of the third kind of ancient accidence – conjugation): λύσ-ις > λύσ-η, οντότ-ης > οντότ-ητα, Ελλά-ς > Ελλ-άδα, ρήτ-ωρ > ρήτ-ορας, κλητ-ήρ > κλητήρας…. 3. The elements of words Compound words are
constituted (formed) by the first (a’) and the second (b’) component, namely
by their relative simple words. i.e.: συν-γράφω, παρ-ερμηνεύω, εξ-υπ-ακούγεται.. (As in
English: under-standing,..) Simple words are constituted
by the following elements: ending (derivative and formative), subject
(thema), root, epithema, prefix and accent. 1. Ending Ending
is called the changeable final part of an inclinable word. The linguistic
element of the inclinable word stating what part of speech (noun, adjective,
verb…) and what type (gender, number, case or person) is the significant part
of the word. I.e. καλ-ός, καλ-οί,
καλ-ή, καλ-ό, τέλ-ος, τελεί-α… (As in
English: good & good-s, end > end-ing, end-ed…). Derivative
endings are those by which we create words from other words (from subjects of
other words). For instance,
the following endings: -ινός: χθες > χθεσ-ινός,ή,ό, κοντά
> κοντινός, μακρά > μακρινός, τώρα > τωρινός.. -(ά)ζω: σχόλια > σχολιάζω, αγκαλιά > αγκαλιάζω,.. ,…………………………… Formative
or declination endings are those by which we create words from roots or alternate
at end of an inclinable word in order to achieve its formations (gender and
case in nouns and adjectives, tenses and persons in verbs). I.e.: Case
ending (in masculine nouns and adjectives): φόρ-ος, ου,ο,ε γραφ-ικ-ός,ου,ο,ε, Κώστ-ας,α,α,α, Μανώλ-ης,η,η,η… φόροι,ων,ους,οι γραφ-ικ-οί,ών,ούς,οί,
Κωστ-ήδες,ων,ες,ες... Person endings (in present tense of verbs): λύν-ω,εις,ει,ουμε,ετε,ουν λύν-ομαι,εσαι,εται,ομαστε,εστε,ονται =
passive voice 2. Subject (“thema”) and root Subject
is called the starting and immutable (unchanged) part of an inclinable word
that states the main meaning. The initial phthongs (= sounds of words) of the
word that remain unchanged in inclination (case subject). I.e.: τακτ-ός, τακτ-ού, τακ-τοί,… or are taken
from the word to create another word (derivative subject): τακτ-ικός, τακτ-οποιώ… Double
subjective are called those words which are presented having two subjects in
composition (syn γη > γήπεδο, μεσό-γειος, γε-ωργία καλ-ός,ή,ό > καλό-παιδο, καλλι-γραφία
(καλή γραφή) Nominative: πόλ-η, πολ-ίτης, γάλα >
γαλουχώ Genitive:
πόλεως, πολεοδομία, γάλατος, γαλατάς Root is called the initial subject by
whom a series of words or subjects are created (made). I.e.: πόλις or πόλ-η (root and initial
subject πολ-)
> πολ-ίτ-ης (the subject now
is πολιτ-) >
πολ-ιτικ-ός (the subject now
is πολιτικ-) and
πολιτικάντ-ης, πολιτεύομαι > πολιτευτ-ής… Character is called the
final phthong (sound of words) of the subject or of the root: γραφ-ή (Character is φ), γραφικ-ός (Character is κ)… Epithema is the part of an
ending that is put in an ending for certain meaning. I.e.: τακτ-ός > τακτ-(ικ)-ός 3. Prefix Prefix
is called the total group of phthongs (sounds of words) which is put before a
subject in inclination, like the syllabic augment “e-“ in verbs. For example:
λύνω > έ-λυνα, έ-λυσα, φέρνω > έ-φερα.. 4. Accent Accent
is called a louder pronunciation of a syllable in a word (the accentuation of
the voice in a syllable of a word). The accent is for
the expansion of the pronunciation (it is difficult to pronounce the same all
the syllable of a word) and in Greek language has notional importance. Accent
combined with endings (Only in Greek) state what part of speech and sometimes
what type is a word. I.e.: εξοχ-ή, μετοχ-ή, Ξάνθ-η… (= noun) έξοχ-η, μέτοχ-η, ξανθ-ή.. (= adjectives) άδικ-ο, άπορ-ο, άτυχ-ο, .. (= adjective) & αδικ-ώ, απορ-ώ, ατυχ-ώ.... (= verb),
έξοχ-ος, κάθετ-ος, υπόγει-ος,.... (= adjective) &
εξόχ-ως, καθέτ-ως, υπογεί-ως... (= adverb),... ξεκίνα, περπάτα, αγάπα… (= imperative) ξeκινά, περπατά, αγαπά… (= indicative) Accent
mark is called the marc (/) by which we indicate the accent syllable (the
name given the sign in written speech above the vowel of the stressed accentuated
syllable), e.g.: κα-λός, κά-λος,, ά-δικος... In
oral speech (in all languages) one syllable of each word is accented, except
in words of one syllable, see in: English:
morning, pronounce “ mόrnιnk”, In
Greek: καλη-με-ρα, κα-κός, ά-τυ-χος.... In the
Greek writing system we always put the accent mark on the stressed vowel
letter: κα-λός, νέ-ος.. Something
that does not occur in writing with Latin characters, see in English: morning
(“ μόρνινκ”), 4. Phthongs (= the sounds of words) &
syllables Syllable
is called the smallest (least) piece in which a word can be cut and
pronounced in achieving a comfortable acoustic apprehension. I.e: α-έ-ρας, καλ-ός … (In English:
mo-ther, En-glish…) Phthong
(Greek φθόγγος,
pronunciation <<fthόnkοs>>) in the
Greek writing system is called one of the individual sounds (voices) of the
word syllables. Phthongs are called the vowels and consonants, the individual
sounds of the syllable in the words, as for example the phtongs of the words: Greek
words: γρά-φω, Ι-τα-λί-α = γ/ρ/ά/φ/ω, Ι/τ/α/λ/ί/α.. Latin words:
I-ta-li-a, La-ti-um = I-t/a/l/y, L/at/i/u/m... The
total of different phthongs of all languages, ancient or modern, is just
twenty (20), the following: Greek writing: α, ε, ο, ου, ι, μ, ν, λ,
ρ, σ, ζ, τ, δ, θ,
π, β, φ, κ, γ, χ Latin writing: a, e, o, u, i, m, n, l, r, s, z, t, th, dh, p, v, f, c, gh, h Important
note: 1)
Every vowel in a word, alone or combined with a consonant before or alter it
makes a syllable, i.e.: ο α-ε-τος, εν, εκ, κε-νός… because the consonants
are not possible to be pronounced by themselves (separately); they are always
accompanied by a vowel. That is why, in Greek, consonants are called «σύμφωνα = συν-φωνή» > Latin
“con-sonors” > English “consonants” (agreeing, harmonized, according) or
(along with the sound). I.e.: εν, νέ-ος, τον, ε-γέ-λα-σε.. Consonant
syllable is called the syllable in which there is one or more consonant (a
syllable containing vowel + consonant or consonants), e.g.: εκ, εν,την, βους, κε-νός.. Vowel
syllable is called the syllable in which there is not consonant (a syllable
containing a vowel only), e.g.: o α-έ-(ρας), η ω-(ραί)-α.. 2) The
Greek word <<Συλλαβή>>
= syllable (in English) is constituted (formed) from the simple
words συν-λαβή, from συν-λαμβάνω > συλλαβή = arrest,
apprehension. 3) The
phthongs, the vowels and consonants, are a conventional distinction, since
the smaller part of a word is the syllable and the consonants are always
pronounced with a vowel (that is where the words “φωνήεντα = vowels” and “σύμφωνα = consonants”
come from). 4) It
was the Greeks who first made the distinction between the phthongs, the
consonants and the vowels, in a conventional way, because they realized by
going so: a) Fewer
symbols of writing are required since the different kinds of phthongs are
fewer ( b) Writing
becomes more simplified (easier) and etymological, i.e. that we write what we
say phonetically and the same time what we mean as a part of the speech and
at the form of the word (type: gender, number, case, person..) by using the
homophone letters. 5)
Phthongs and syllables are not constituent (intellectual, etymogical) elements
of words. Those that realize the linguistic (For
more see the book “The Greek writing system”, A. Krassanakis) |
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CHAPTER 2nd PARTS OF SPEECH 1. Significance and
types of parts of speech Parts of speech are said the
types of words of language from opinion of importance and syntax of (operation
in the proposal). The parts of speech of Greek language are ten, the
following: the article = ο,η,το (= the) the noun or substantive: αγάπη, Μαρία, Ευρώπη, παιδί, γάλα… (= the love, Maria, the adjective:
καλ-ός,ή,ό, ωραί-ος,α,ο… (= good, beautiful…). the pronoun: εγώ, εσύ,
αυτός,ή,ό… (= I, you, he, she, it, those…) the verb: αγαπώ, ομιλώ,
κλαίω… (=
i love, i speak,…) the participle: γραμμένος,η,ο,
μαγεμένος,η,ο… the adverb: κάτω, πάνω, εκεί….( = down, under, there…) the preposition: από, μετά, σε, επί… (= from, after, in,…) the conjunctions: και, όταν, γιατί…, (= and, when, why..) the interjection: αμήν!, αχ! …. (= αmen!, ach!,…) By the ten parts of speech of Greek language, the six: the article, the
substantive, the surname, the pronoun, the action and the verb are said
declinable, because they are conjugated. That is to say each one of them is
presented in the speech with various forms, e.g.: καλ-ός, καλ-ή, καλ-ό, κα-λ-ές, καλ-ών… μαγεμέν-ος, μαγεμέν-ου, άλλ-ος, άλλ-οι… Τhe remainder four: the adverb, the intention, the contact and the
interjection, are said un-delineated, because in speech each one of them is
always presented with the same form, e.g.: εδώ,
εκεί, αμάν, και... 2. Declinable parts of
speech a. What is inclination, types etc Inclination is said the special way with which take shape the falls
bending and the years and the persons of verb. The way with which are altered
the declinable words in the speech. The inclination becomes in one hand with
endings (conclusions, suffices) that are proportional with the part of
speech, the gender, the number and the declination cases or the person of
other word and in other hand with the locomotion of tone in certain cases or
persons, as well as with the addition of the e- in certain tense of verbs,
see e.g.: καλ-ός, καλ-ού, καλ-οί… τιμ-ώ, τιμ-άς, τιμ-ά, ετίμ-ησα,.. Types of (words) are said the forms that take the declinable words at
the syntax (in the speech), the cases of word (and their genders) in the
declination and persons in the verbs, consequently the various forms that
take the declinable words for individual intelligent differences. b. Cases of
declination Cases of declination are said the changes (types, forms) that present
or take the article, the noun or substantives, the adjectives, the participle
and the pronouns in the speech, from where these are called also declinated
parts of speech: Μαρί-α,
Μαρί-ας, Μαρί-ες = case of noun, καλ-ός, καλ-ού, καλ-οί... = cases of adjective. The cases of declination of Greek language are four: the nominative,
general, the accusative and the vocative, singular and plural number. 1. The nominative reveals the subject of proposal (= what for is said
the proposal), as well as his defendant (= what is said for the subject). The
case that him we handled, in order to we answer in the question "what,
who, a, + verb of proposal", see e.g.: _Ο Γιάννης είναι καλός
μαθητής. = Yannis (subject) is good student. _Ο μαθητής πάει στο
δωμάτιο. = The student (subject) is going in to
the room. 2. General reveals what in it belongs or is reported what for we
speak. The case that we handled, when we want to show the owner of somebody,
hence answers in the question "name + which of you/us etc), e.g.: _Το μήλο του Γιάννη = the apple of John 3. The accusative reveals the object, as well as all the other
syntactic terms (place, tense or time, sum etc), if they are declared with
declinable word or with syntactic total. Consequently it is the case that we
handled, in order to we answer in the questions: "who + verb of
proposal" (for the object), "where/when/how/how many/because + verb
of proposal" (for the other terms - determinations), see e.g.: _Γιώργο, η
Μαρία
κτύπησε
τον
Αντώνη
την
Δευτέρα
= George, Mary (subject) stroked Antonis (objective) in the
Monday. (When stroked; = Monday = the
time). _ Εγώ
θα
πάω
με
τα
πόδια
στο
σχολείο = I will go with the legs (how I will go; = with the legs = the way,
the means) to the school (where I will
go; = to the school = the place). _ Πάω/πήγα
δέκα
κιλά
πατάτες = I go/it went ten kilos potatoes (I go/it went how many = ten kilos
= the quantity.) The vocative reveals the one that we dedicate, invite or salute
a man/woman etc, as well as the one in which is addressed the proposal (the
answer in the question "in who, a you speak"). The case that we
handled, when we call somebody or something, e.g.: _ Εγώ, αγαπητή
μου, είπα
να
φύγουμε
αύριο = I, dear, I say him we leave for tomorrow. _Ναι, Μαρία, πήγα. = Yes, Marry, I went. g. Numbers of
declinations The cases of declinations have two numbers, the singular and the
plural. Singular number is said the cases that reveal that important of them
is in the number a thing or animal etc... or a total or part of total: _Ο Γιάννης, η Μαρία =
Yannis, Maria.. = a individual, _Η
τάξη, το
σχολείο, το
Υπουργείο = the order/the school/the Ministry = a total. _ Το
ένα
τρίτο = The one third of (1/3) order = 1 part from three Plural number is said the cases that reveal that important of them is
in the number many or all the total that we speak. Regularly the precise
number of what we speak is declared with quantitative determination. If we do
not put such determination, then is meant the "all," or it means
that we speak for many (when we do not put article), see eg: _ You bring
books (= many). Bring books (= all concrete). _Οι
κουρείς
των
Αθηνών = the barbers of _ Οι
δέκα
κουρείς = the ten barbers that left (= ten) |
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CHAPTER 3rd HISTORY OF GREEK LANGUAGE 1. History of Greek Language Greek
Language is very old, the oldest in 2. Periods of Greek Language The
language of every people does not follow similar manners of speech from time
to time. It presents similarities as well as differences in inflection or in
sentence construction of words, etc from place to place as well. Ancient Greek Modern (new
Greek Εμπρός εις την θάλασσα. = Μπροστά στην
θάλασσα. Σήμερον όλοι εορτάζουν. = Σήμερα όλοι γιορτάζουν. Επέρασεν και η Αποκριά. = Πέρασε και η Αποκριά. Όλοι κατέβησαν εις τον αιγιαλόν = Όλοι κατέβηκαν στον γιαλό Μία χελιδών έαρ ού ποιεί. = Ένα χελιδόνι δεν φέρνει την
άνοιξη. ,................. This
is due to the fact that: 1)
From time to time sciences and technology change or develop, feeding with new
words the vocabulary. Tools and activities were different fifty years ago new
tools and new activities to day are called in different names. 2) The
language is differentiated continuously in order to be simpler and more
precis in Roughly,
the Greek language is divided in three long periods: The ancient (up to 1) First period, archaic It’s
the period from very old times until the Persian wars (490 BC) PELASGEAN TIMES = PRE MINOAN TIMES (Pelasgean
nation was the ancestry – descent of Greeks) MINOAN TIMES, from 1500 BC until 1200 BC (According
to Thucydides (A, 3-6), Minoas was the first king that turned away the
barbarians from Greek sea and from Greek islands and he was the cause to
create after the An
indication of what about was the kind of language in the Minoan times cab be
found of language in decoding by M. Ventris and J. Chadwich of the tablets
written in the Linear writing B’, where one is able to realize the little
differentiation of the next period. Words
from Linear writing B’: pome (ποιμήν), patter (πατήρ), meri (μέρη, μέλη),
doelos (δούλος),
jero (ιερό).... MYCENAEAN TIMES from 1200 BC until 500 BC
From
Trojan War until the Persian wars This
is the period of the ancient dialects: Ionic, Doric and Aeolic. A precise
indication of how the language of that time can be found in the literary
works of Homer, Residues, Tyrtaeos, Simonides, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and
other prose and rhyme writers. Dipylos tablet, 8th – 7th century BC ΗΟS NYN ORXESTΟΝ ΠΑΝΤΟΝ ΑΤΑLOTATA.......... From
1300 BC tile 750 BC (Dipylos inscription) the replacement of the Lenear
Writing B’ with the Writing system of our days places. Attician inscription of 5th century BC. ΕΔΟΧΣΕΝ Ε ΒΟΛΕΙ ΚΑΙ ΤΟ ΔΕΜΟΙ.... Spartian
dialect: Αμές δ`ε γ'
εσόμεθα πολλ~ω κάρρονες Tyrtaios (685 - 667 BC): Τεθνάμμενας γ`αρ καλόν ενί προμάχοισι
πεσόντα ανδρ'
αγαθόν περί η πατρίδι
μαρνάμενον τ`ην δ' αυτού προλιπόντα κα`ι πίονας
αγρούς πτωχεύειν πάντων εστ' ανιηρότατον....
(Υποθήκη) Homer (8/7ος century B.C.): Μήνιν αειδε, Θε~α, Πηληιάδε?ω Αχιλλ~ηος.. If we
check the forty words of the first Homeric poetical lines, we can realise
that to day eleven (11) words are similarly spoken: θεά, ηρώων, αυτούς, και, το, τα, η, ο βουλή, πολλά, εξ, πρώτα... fourteen (14)
words obtained an small phthongic differentiation in their endings (therefore
inclination): ψυχάς > ψυχές. Αχιλλεύς > Αχιλλέας, μήνις > μανία, διαστήτη > διάσταση, άλγεα – άλγη.... and the rest
can be found as base (theme) for other words. 2) Second period, the Classical The
period from the Persian wars to the end of 4th century BC (490 – 300 BC),
which is called Classical. A
precise indication for the condition of the language in that period can be
found in the works of Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato, Lyssias,
Aeschinis, Aristotle and other prose and rhyme writers of that time. << άρχεται dε πόλεμος ενθέδε ήδη
Αθηναίων και Πελοπονησίων και των εκατέροις ξυμμάχων...>> (Thucydides
“Plataica B 1 – 6) In the
4th century BC, after the victories (and the splendour) against Persians,
common alphabet and writing are established for all Greeks as well as a
common name (the name “Hellenes”). By the
victories of Alexander the Great the Greek language of that period become the
international language of the era especially in the Hellenized areas of the
east ( 3) Third period, the Alexandrine The
period from the times of Alexander’s successors (from the Hellenistic times)
to the times of the emperor Octavian Augustus (300 – 30 BC), which is called
Alexandrine because the centre of the Greek language (of letters and arts)
has been transferred in A
precise indication for the condition of the language in that period can be
found in the works of Theoctitos, Dhiodhotos os <<Και εκδύσαντες αυτόν περιέθηκαν
χλαμύδα κοκκίνην>> (Evangelist) 4) Fourth period, the Latin The
period from the times of the emperor Octavian Augustus to the times of
Justinian (30 BC – 527 AD). In the beginning of the 4th century AD 5) The fifty period, the Byzantine The
period from the times Justinian’s times to the Capture of Constantinople (528
– 1453 AD), which is called the Byzantine period, because the center of the
Greek language (of the Greek letters and arts) has been the Byzantio (= the 6) Sixth period, the Turkish period The
period from the times of the Capture of Constantinople (from Turkish) and
later from Venetian to the Greek revolution (1453 – 1821 AD). Many
words of the conquerors have been maintained up to this day Turkish
words: μπογιατζής
(boyatzi), χασάπης
(kasap), χούι, χαράτσι... Venetian
words: μπουκάλα, φρατζόλα, μποτίλια... 7) Seventh period, the New Greek From
the Greek revolution of 1821 until nowadays. This is the period of the New
Greek, the pure (“Katharevussa”) and the popular (“demotic”) Greek language. a. Atticism
During
the Roman Era, when the Greek language was still international (circa the end
of the 1st Century AD), some Greek writers, bookish mans, literary mans etc,
appeared, who did not write in their contemporary language, but in the Attic
authors’ language of the Classical Era. They were urged in this activity not
only by their trust to the superiority (the high standards) of the Attic
dialect but also by their perception whey realized that the Greek Language of
their times had been invaded occupied by barbarisms (foreign words, idiom
etc.) because of ignorance or degeneration, 50 it should not be
immortalized. This movement was called
Atticism and the authors, who estimated the Attic dialect as their ideal language,
Atticists, As a right usage criterion was estimated the localization of a
word or a type in the texts of the Attic writers of the 5th and the 4th
Century BC, not the fact that this word or this type were useless in the
language of their times. As a
result of Atticism was the creation of bilinguality which means the usage of
two different linguistic forms: The one (the old – fashioned) mainly in the
written speech and the other (the popular) mainly in the oral speech. The
bilinguality occurred till 1976 when Demotic (the popular) was established
officially. The
most significant Atticists were Dionisysius of Alicarnassus, Lucian, Plutarch
and Arian. b.
Katharevousa (= “Pure Language”) Katharevousa
(language) was the language that appeared for first time in the years of the
Turkish Occupation as a compromising solution between the Byzantine Atticism
and the spoken language. Katharevousa,
the “pure” language, some times was found to be closer to the ancient Greek
Language (then it was called αρχαΐζουσα or άκρατος = strict pure
language) and some times closer to the Modern Greek Language (then it was
called simplified or simple pure language). The
Katharevousians, like the Atticists, started from the perception that the
spoken language of their times was barbaric and rude, full of idioms and
morphologically dissimilar (many foreign words, many idioms, many different –
Greek or foreign – endings, etc). Thus, it was unable to From
Italian: γαζέτα, σπετσαρία, ρετσέτα, μπαρμπέρης… Into Greek: εφημερίδα, φαρμακείο, συνταγή, κουρέας From Turkish: αμανάτι, μεϊντάνι, νταμάρι, πεχλιβάνης,
τεμπεσίρι, τζαμπάζης Into Greek: ενέχυρο, αγορά, λατομείο, παλαιστής, κιμωλία, ζωέμπορος. c. Demotic Demotic
is the language all Greeks speak today. It is named so because it is used by
all demotes (c i t i z e n s ) , it is (p a n) demotic (p u b l i c) in
contrast to Katharevousa which was not public and popular. Linguistic matter Linguistic
Matter was “the existing quarrel until 1976 between the oral language of the
public and the official written language”. By the appearance of Atticism
during the Roman times, the bilinguality of the Greek Language obtained the
starting point for instance, while others were used to say «η τάξη, της τάξης, οι τάξεις, ψάρι, κυβέρνηση, κήρυκας, κρεοπώλης» others were used
to say «η τάξις, τση τάξης, ιχθύς, ελαιόλαδο, κυβέρνησις, τελάλης, χασάπης” and other were
used to say «η τάξις, της τάξεως, αι τάξεις, οψάριον, έλαιον, γκουβέρνο» according to
the descent and the education of everyone. Because
of this situation a justified movement started about the “arrangement” of the
language by the men of letters (journalists, authors, poets). However, they
could not find an agreement about how this wish would become a reality. This
difficulty brought a war of arguments between the Katharevousians (who strove
for the return of the ancient Greek Language and especially that one of Katharevousians:
L.Photiades, A.Grazi, N.Doukas, N.Theotokis, P. Kodrikas, P. Soutsos,
K.Kondos, and others. Demoticistes:
Rigas Pheraeos, G.Kostandas, D.Philippides, I. Vilaras, A. Christopoulos, D.
Solomos, D. Vernadakis, I. Psicharis, M. Triantaphilides, and others. Adamantios
Corais was standing between the two opinions. Finally,
politics inserted/ intervened! The conservatives, moved by the ideal ancient
Greek standards, demanded the return of the ancient Greek Language in the
Attic way, while the leftists reacted, because they considered it an utopia
or something very difficult to come true. They preferred the Greek Language
in the condition formed by the time and the circumstances. The conservatives
won in this conflict and the respective education started to be applied in
schools. Until the establishment of the desirable language, the Greek were
used to speak the modern Greek language almost like to day and write the
schools official documents in a language closer to the ancient dialect of However,
the desirable return of the ancient Greek Language was proved unattainable
and that was an expected conclusion because: 1) On
the one hand students in schools were taught the ancient Attic dialect
deficiently; on the other hand the local dialect (Cretan, Vlachian…) or a
language similar to the Greek Demotic Language nowadays was in daily usage at
home and work. 2) The
language is living organism that is developed, enriched, improved
continuously. Therefore, nothing can bring it backwards-to a previous day. a) The
changes in form and in inclination of certain groups of words did not occur
accidentally but similarly to other change, for practical reasons. I.e.
(simplification) nouns ending in –is: τάξις, πράξις… were
transformed into nouns ending in –η in order to obtain the same inclination with nouns
ending in – η: πηγή, νίκη… b)
Many words were changed by time phonologically for euphony or meaning
differentiation. For instance: χώρα
(geographical) and χώρα > ώρα (time), γράφμα > γράμμα (more euphony), συνμαθητής > συμμαθητής (more euphony)… c)
Many words meaning old times men’s professions became words of two genders.
i.e. o γιατρός > η γιατρός (masculine) or γιατρίνα (feminine), ο έμπορος > ο, η έμπορος or
o έμπορας (masculine) and η εμπόρισσα (feminine)…. Αs a result, the
oral or written speech in school was different compared to the oral or
written speech at home or at work. (For example, in school compositions
students were writing « α ι μ η τ έ ρ α ι, ε ι ς τ α ς Α θ ή ν α ς» however, at home
they were saying «ο ι μ α ν ά δ ε ς, σ τ η ν Α θ ή ν α». Τhe consequences
for many students were the linguistic confusion or the school a- version. Facing
this problem, a conservative government under the leadership of Constantine
Karamanlis, despite of the fact that in older times the conservatives fought
the establishment of the Demotic language, in 1976 established unconstrained
(unforcedly) the Contemporary Greek or Demotic Language a long with the
linguistic standards (vocabulary and inclination) referred in the book «Νέ ο ε λ λ η ν ι κ ή Γ ρ α μ μ α τ ι κ ή» (Modern Greek Grammar Ο.Α.Ε.Δ Publication, Athens 1976). The
“one accent” system was established in 1982 by the socialist government under
the leadership of Andreas Papandreou. Its establishment took place to make
the Greek writing easier. Nevertheless, in was also a demand of Computer
users because 20 Computers of that generation did not contain any plectrum
for accents or signals. The reason was the lack of signs in the Latin
alphabet (the aspiration marks, the accents and the solvent marks). A
significant role in the formation of the modern style of the contemporary Greek
Language haw been played the linguist M. Triantaphillides (“Grammar of the
Demotic Greek Language”) as well as by many journalists and authors of our
times. |
|
CHAPTER 4th Differences
between Greek and other
languages 1.
Characteristics & principles of the Greek language The Greek language compared to another language
presents proportional similarities and differences. In a general view and in
relation to the other languages, it disposes the following elements, which
make the Greek language separate and (1) It possesses an infinite productive ability, unique
in the whole word (in all a round the world), because its words are farmed by
combinations of mentalinguistic elements like a root or a theme + an ending,
etc., not by a periphrasis that other languages (Chinese, Japanese, English,
etc.) follow. From a root or a theme a lot of words can by formed. I.e.: Simple words: γράφ-ω,
γραφ-ή, γραφ-ικ-ός, γραφ-έας… Compound words: δια-γράφω, συν-γραφέας > συγγραφέας…. (2) Its endings, typological and productive, are not
accidental but proportionate, with the part of speech and the type (gender,
number, case, or person), therefore they have an order. For instance, verbs,
endings in –ω,εις,ει: αδικ-ώ, αδικ-είς, αδικ-εί.. and adjectives, endings in – os,η,ό: καλ-ός, καλ-ή, καλ-ό, … (3) It contains many words (a very rich vocabulary),
the greatest collection in comparison to other languages due on the one hand
to its long linguistic history and on the hand to its (4) Its words, simple and compound, are usually polysyllabic
(two syllables and more) thanks to the endings; as a result, they are
comprehensive as well as easy in pronunciation: καλημέρα, Γιώργος Monosyllabic words are only certain types of the
article and some undeclinable words. (5) Its words did not have combinations of phthongs
difficult in pronunciation. The Greek words have been developed syllabically and
all phthongs contain a similar intensity in pronunciation unless there is an
accented syllable: κ α - λ ό ς, κ α – λ η – μ έ – ρ α. They syllables of the Greek words are either a vowel
alone or a vowel and a consonant together: οι α-ε-τοί, εκ, το… two or three consonants are
together only whether the first or the third is semivowel (μ, ν, λ, ρ, σ, ζ): έ-γρα-ψα, Στα-θης, ά-ρτος, ά-ρθρο. In this case, the pronunciation is more simple and
comfortable. The combinations νρ, νλ, νμ, να, νζ, πμ, βμ, φμ, receive rejection or
assimilation: σ υ ν – ρ ά π τ ω > σ υ ρ ρ ά π τ ω, έ ν λ ο γ ο ς > έ λ λ ο γ ο ς, γ ρ ά φ μ α > γ ρ ά μ μ α, σ ύ (ν) ζ υ γ ο ς. (6) It has three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter)
and three different articles (ο, η, το): ο
π α τ έ ρ α ς, η μ ά ν α, τ ο π α ι δ ί. (7) The verb, according to its ending, reveals its subject
as a person of speech (whether the subject is the speaker, the listener
(auditor) or a third person) as well as the voice (active or passive) : λύ ν – ω, meaning λ, the speaker = subject , λ ύ ν – ε ι ς meaning you, the listener = subject, λ ύ ν –ει meaning he, she, it = the third =
subject, λ ύ ν – ω = action and
λ ύ ν - ο μ α ι
= passion. (8) Its words are, in their majority, declinable (The
exclamations, the prepositions, the conjunctions and the adverbs are not
declinable.) and each of the syntactical parts of a sentence (subject,
object, predicate) has a certain case to report (The subject in Nominative,
the object in Accusative…) so that they can remain distinct when they are
mixed up. I.e: (Ε γ ώ) + α γ α π ώ +
τ η ν Μ α ρ ί α + δ ύ ο χ ρ ό ν ι α = Α γ α π ώ + ε γ ώ +
τ η ν Μ α ρ ί α + δ ύ ο χ ρ ό ν ι α = Ε γ ώ + τ η ν Μ α ρ ί α + δ ύ ο χ ρ ό ν ι α + α γ α π ώ = Δ ύ ο χ ρ ό ν ι α + α γ α π ώ + τ η ν Μ α ρ ί α + ε γ ώ . (9) Ιts parts of
speech are formed by certain endings, therefore there is no need of any
special syntax to show what part of speech is a word in a sentence. This does
not occur in a lot of other languages such as English, Russian, etc. because
there a name or a pronoun + a word = a verb, as well as an article + a word =
a noun: Nick loves, I love, the love (Ο Νίκος αγαπάει, αγαπώ, η αγάπη). (10) It possesses many syntactical formations (syntax
ways): Το τραίνο
οδηγείται από τον Γιώργο (Passive Syntax) = Ο Γιώργος
οδηγεί το τραίνο (Active Syntax) = Ο Γιώργος
είναι οδηγός του τραίνου (Attributive Syntax). (11) The accents of its words (combined with the
endings) indicate the parts of speech or the types of the words: λάβ – ει, γράφει, έξοχ-η, συμμέτοχ-η, = λαβ-ή, γραφ-ή, εξοχ-ή, συμμετοχ-ή. Here, the accented syllable of the words is not
any syllable or the final syllable or the penult syllable for the all the
words, as it is met in other languages, but that syllable which is fixed by
the meaning or by the part of speech or by its type. For example, if the adjectives
are accented on the antepenult syllable, the nouns are accented on the final
syllable of the penult syllable: συμμέτοχη,
ανάγωγη, παράγωγη,- άξια, άγια = adjectives. Συμμετοχή,
αναγωγή, παραγωγή – αξία, αγία = nouns. On the other hand, in the other languages: (a) There is no strong productive ability because
the words and their types are formed mainly in a periphrastic way (as it can
be seen in English: I love, he loves, the love) and not by using the
linguistic elements root or subject + ending, etc. (b) The words are not articulated with the
mentalinguistic elements prefix + subject + ending, at least in the rich way
and the good arrangement of the Greek Language. (c) The accent (in languages that present
polysyllabic words) is only the concretization and the expansion of
pronunciation; this occurs on some accidental syllable, on the final syllable
(in French), on the penult or the antepenult syllable (in English). Despite its existence, the accent is not noted in
the writing because there is nothing more to present as it happens in the
Greek Language. I.e. (English) morning (μόρνιγκ), fire (φάϊαρ), Μary (Mέρι). Especially: (1) Chinese Language is the opposite of Greek
Language. There are no endings in Chinese, therefore no inclination and no polysyllabic
words. The Chinese words are monosyllabic (the compound words have two
syllables): “tsim” = In the Chinese Language every gender usualy
passesses its own words. For example, her there is no “Anthony” and “Antonia” (2) English Language does not possess inclination
endings, by almost any means (i.e.: good = καλός, ή, ό, καλοί, καλών, καλές, καλώς) therefore there are only least inclinations and words with few syllables:
go, go ou, go up, go down. The English Language possesses (solely) productive
words: lov – ability, lov-able, lov-ableness, lov-ably, love-less, love-ly,
lov-er, lov-ing, As it is in Greek Language, the genders here are
also three, however the article is one or similar for the three genders, the
article “the”. The word gender is rarely distinguished through an ending
(some feminine words have the ending -ess). Usually in English every gender Contains its own special words, no common words that
can change the gender, like in Greek, by just adding the proportionate
ending. The actor (o ηθοποιός) – the actress (η
ηθοποιός) The poet (o ποιητής) – the poetess (η ποιήτρια) The boy
(το αγόρι) - the girl (το κορίτσι) In English Language, many words belong in many parts
of speech or types, like. The article the + word = noun: the love = η
αγάπη Τhe article the + word with – s” = plural of noun: the loves = οι
αγάπες The word of + word = genitive: of love = της
αγάπης Name or pronouns + word = verb: I love = αγαπώ, Mary loves
= η Μαρία αγαπά Word + word = adjective + nun: love affair = Ερωτική σχέση, love letter = ερωτικό γράμμα The English word verb, without endings, does not
reveal which of the parts of speech (speaker, listener, or a third person) is
its subject (= the person that acts or receives the stated act). In order to
reveal this we put before the verb some pronoun or other words. It is the
reason that these are not omitted in the English Language or certain terms
are put together like, for instance, subject + verb: I love = (εγώ) αγαπώ = verb, [a’ person, the speaker] You love = (εσύ) αγαπάς
= verb [b’ person = the listener] He loves = (αυτός) αγαπά = c’ person, the person they are talking about She loves = (αυτή) αγαπά
= c’ person, the person they are talking about Mary loves = (Η
Μαρία) αγαπά = c’ person, a concrete person The love = (η) αγάπη = noun in Nominative Of the love = (της) αγάπης = noun in Genitive (3) Latin Language is similar in many elements to Greek
Language. Its words are articulated in Greek way, it possesses three genders,
endings and inclinations, however not according to the orders the extension
and the variety of the Greek Language: am – o, am – as, am – at, magnus, - a,
- um. (4) Italian Language is a very faithful follower of
Latin Language in many elements. It does not possess the neuter gender. So as
a consequence, the gender of its words sometimes is similar and sometimes is
not similar to the gender of the same words in Greek and Latin language, see
for example: Latin Greek il padre = ο
πατέρας, same gender la madre = η
μητέρα, same gender il bastone (masculine gender) = η μπαστούνα (female gender) la carta (female gender) = ο χάρτης (masculine gender) il libro (masculine gender) = το βιβλίο (neuter
gender) il ragazo = ο νεαρός
& το αγόρι, la ragaza = η νεαρά
& το κορίτσι. (For further information’s see the book: “Scientific Linguistics” by
A. Krassanakis.) 2. The
wealth, the Greek
Language is one of the richest and most Greek language presents a high (a) Contains many syntax formations of speech
[active and passive voice, declaration (opinion) and situation (condition)
etc.]: O Μανώλης κτυπά τον Νίκο = Ο Νίκος κτυπιέται από τον Μανώλη, Γνωρίζω το θέμα = Είμαι γνώστης του θέματος. (b) Disposes a word for each meaning. (c) Its words speak according to their contained
elements (subject + root + ending, accent): γραφ – έας, γράφ – ω, γράφ – ικός, - ή, -ό.
Greek Language is very rich because: 1) It presents a productive ability; it is able to
create a word for any differentiation of a meaning very easily: γραφ-έας, γραφι-ικός, γράμμα. 2) It has inherited the vocabulary of the ancient
Greek Language. The Contemporary or Demotic Greek Language is a young
language in age, since it was consecrated officially in 1976. However, as a
follower of the ancient Greek Language, it has inherited the whole collection
of the ancient Greek words as well as the syntax formations of speech, adding
its own creations in order to cover needs and deficiencies, which have
emerged in the meanwhile by either the impetuous rise of arts, sciences,
athletism (therefore a need of naming various new goods and terms) or the
substitution of foreign words (linguistic loans) imposed by the Roman and the
Turkish Occupation. As a consequence, the contemporary or Demotic Greek
language is much richer than any other language, even the ancient Greek
Language. It is very wealthy of its large heritage, however there is an important
detail in the comparison with the ancient language. For the reasons seen
above, the Demotic Greek Language contains more linguistic loans. The ancient
Greek Language, as a language of a people very progressive in its times, exported
words and seldom imported (exported and rarely imported words). Greek Language contains word derived not only from
all over the The contribution of Greek Language to other
languages is not merely great, but vast; because it offered plenty of words
to them thanks to its high productive ability. The word structure of the
Greek language is composed by concrete linguistic elements: root or subject +
ending (simple and productive) + accent, as seen above. Thus, for every
meaning, concrete or abstract, visible or invisible, there is possibility of
creating a separate word through a combination of these linguistic elements;
a result that is multiplied by a syn See for example: Simple words: γραφ – ή,
γραφ – ικός, - ή, - ό γραφ – είον,
γραφ έας,, γράφ – μα ] γράμμα, γραμμ –
ατικός, -ή, γραμμ – άριο, γραμμ –
ατέας, γραμμ – ή, γραμμ – ικός, -ή, - ό. Compound words: ά – γραφ –
ος, - η, - ο, συ (ν) – γγραφ – έας,
από – γραφ – έας, δια – γράφω, ανα – γράφω, παρ – άγω ] παρ – άγωγος, -η, -ο, παραγωγ – ός, -ή Accent production: παράγωγος – παραγωγός,
παράγωγη – παραγωγή… The above phenomenon is not met in other languages
except Latin in a lower, however, degree. This is mainly the reason that foreign people have
recourse to the Greek or the Latin Language for word loans or make words with
Greek linguistic elements like, for instance: telephone – τηλέφωνο, (τηλε + φων-ή), prototype
– πρωτοτυπία (πρώτος + τύπος). It is Noted that: (1) The Greek language is the language in which the
greatest religious of the world the religion of the Olympian Gods and the
religion of the New Testament (the Christian religion) have been recorded. (2) In the times of Alexander the Great and Christ
the Greek language was the international language. Most of the apostles: Paul, John, Luke, etc. as well
as other Hebrews had obtained Greek education an the knowledge of the Greek
Language and writing; the Gospels were written in Greek. The Greek writing helped most of the ancient writing
systems to be decoded. Because of the time that the Greek Language was
international, many tablets then had been written in two languages; I.e.
Rozetta’s pillar written in Egyptian and in Greek, the Rabad’s inscription of
Alep in Greek, in Syrian an in Arabic, the Aran’s inscription of Aouran in
Greek an in Arabic. (3) The Greeks, discovering first the alphabetic
writing system and obtaining the possibility to shore their experiences in a
comfortable and correct way, became first in arts and sciences: Homer,
Hesiod, Plato, Heraclitus, Aristotle, Euripides, Aescylus, Democritos. As a
result, the Greek Language became the The international Greek words are countless. |
|
CHAPTER 5th EDUCATIONAL 1. Difficulties of
learning the Greek Language. For many foreigners the Greek language is very difficult to learn. It is
said that learning lasts over twenty – five years (“ATHENS NEWS”, July 1997,
“Learn Greek in twenty-five years”) because the Greek Language: (a) Contains a lot of endings, inclined and productive (words in – μενος, -ικός, - ινός…) therefore difficult inclinations
and production, therefore time as well as mind are demanded to learn this
languages. (b) Contains a lot of long words (polysyllable); plenty of time
periods are necessary to learn the pronunciation of each word. (c) Contains three articles (English one, the “the”) and three genders
(masculine, feminine, neuter) instead of two (masculine and feminine) which
are the normal; therefore, they say, it is difficult to know when somebody
tells i.e. «το κλαδί» and when “o κλάδος». (d) Presents a difficult dictation in writing; they say that they have
to memorize these words written with –o and those words written with –ω, these words with –ε and those words with
–αι, these words with – η and those words with
– ι or – υ, etc. However, these above are somehow wrong because: 1. Although it is true that the Greek Language contains many
endings, inclined and productive, meaning difficult inclination and
production, however, the other languages face a similar difficulty in syntax:
The difficulty in learning how words should be put in a sentence in order to
derive the wishing meaning, since a word without an ending represents a
general meaning which can become specific any combined with other words like
in English. I.e.: I love (pronoun + word = verb)= Greek αγαπώ, the love (article + word = noun) = Greek αγάπη, As well as: go on, go up, go down. 2. Although it is true that the Greek Language contains
many words, innumerous words, however in a wonderful surprise they were not
created by accident, but by certain endings (masculine, feminine, neuter) and
concrete subjects (i.e. γραφ - > γράφ – ω, γραφ – ή, γραφ – έας, γραφ – ικός). Therefore, it is easy to learn them as well as to find their part
of speech and meaning etymologically, analyzing them into their components.
For – example: Νίκ – ος,
Μάν – ος, Κόκκιν – ος _ masculine noun, Νίκ – η, Ανοιξ – η, εξοχ – ή = feminine noun, νικ – ώ, γράφ – ω, = verbs in active voice, νικ – ημένος, γραφ-μένος }γραμμένος = participles in passive voice, δραμ –ατ-ικός
= adjectives, “he who contains a drama”, dramatic. Τhe above linguistic characteristics are not valid in other languages
(except little in Latin), because the vocabulary of the other language has
been created by word loans (for example, in the English vocabulary there are
words from the Greek Language, the Latin Language, etc.) or indeclinable
words of general meaning which are specified conceptionally depending on
their position in a sentence (For example, in the Chinese Language a word can
have up to a hundred meanings). 3. The Greek words, indeed, have the articles and
proportionate gender endings (o Νίκ – ος and η Νίκ – η, το
παιδ –ί, and η μητ – έρα and ο πατ – έρας) which are not presented in the words of other languages (The English
language contains relatively a few endings an one article, “the”, for all
three genders. The Chinese Language disposes neither articles nor endings
but, simply, certain words for every gender). However, articles and endings
are not put at the words accidentally but according to their meanings’ part
of speech and gender, therefore something easy to be found out. I.e. o Νίκ – ος (masculine article and masculine ending if we mean a masculine), η
Νίκ – η (feminine article and feminine ending if we mean a feminine), το
παιδ – ί
(neuter article and neuter ending if we mean a neuter). In other languages, instead of saying, for
example, “Αντώνης και Αντωνία», we say «ο ΄Αντον και
η
Αντοn» changing only the article or we say
“the man Αντον and the woman Aντοn”. (About cases in the Greek Language of putting masculine, feminine
or neuter article – ending, see the intimate chapters). 4. The Greek writing – dictation is not succeeded by memorizing
which word is written i.e. with «ω» or « ο», which word with «ι» or «η», etc. but by following respective rules such as: the verbs are written with « ω », the words having cases with « ο » or « η » (plural – οι), etc. For instance, σήκω, φοιτώ, καλώ,
καλεί, καλείς……, and σύκο, φυτό, καλό, καλή, καλής… (For more information, see “The Greek Writing System” by A.
Krassanakis). 2. How to speak
correct New Greek In order to speak the Greek language correctly we have to obtain
an adequate knowledge of: 1) Its vocabulary (Reading many texts of Greek authors enriches the
vocabulary. A good lexicon is helpful for the unknown words. 2) Its parts of speech (See in other chapters of the present
book). 3) Its formation (the endings and the inclination of the
declinable words (See in other Chapters of the present book) 4) Its syntax and especially the parts of speech very well: how
to familiar persons, how to speak officially, and so on. (See the books “The
Greek Writing System” and “Literature Lessons” by A.Krasanakis). 5) The similarities and the differences between the Modern and
the Ancient Greek Language as well as in every local dialect; which words
belong to the Ancient Greek Language and which words to the Modern Greek
Language; which endings belong to the Ancient Language and which endings to
the Modern Greek language, etc. (For more information see below.) a) The
Vocabulary of the Contemporary Greek Language
The Modern Greek Language (Demotic) saves or restores (re establishes)
all the ancient words of all dialects of the Greek people, whenever and
wherever they have been made, although some these ancient words must be
stated their new shape (ending, subject, and inclination) and according the
their meaning. Ancient Greek: Αθήναι,
τάξις, αψίς, αυλός, παις – παιδίον, πόλις, πατήρ, λέω.. Modern Greek: Αθήνα,
τάξη, αψίδα, αυλός, παιδί, πόλη, πατέρας, λέγω…. See: Αγαθός = “ο καλός” (= good) in ancient Greek and “ο ανόητος, ο
απονήρευτος” (= foolish or artless, unsophisticated, guileless) in modern, New
Greek, b) The
Differences between the Ancient and the Modern Greek Language 1. Many words of the Ancient Greek Language are not used today: αφικνούμαι (but άφιξη is used), ελαύνω (but έλευση, προσέλευση,
etc are used), ιχθύς, (but ιχθυοπωλείο is used); in their place other word have been established. I.e. ψάλλω (instead of άδω), το ψάρι (instead of ο ιχθύς). 2. Some words of the Ancient Greek Language are used today having
another (metaphorical) meaning. I.e. στέργω
(= “I love” in Ancient Greek and “I consent” in Modern Greek), άλογο
(= “middles” in Ancient Greek and “horse” in Modern Greek). 3. The Modern Greek language possesses: a. A similar syntax structure to the syntax structure of the Ancient
Greek Language (In the modern Greek a sentence is also constructed by terms
(specific syntax combinations: subject, predicate, object) of which the cases
are depended on the term or the part of speech they refer]; however the
syntax today is more simple after the abolition of the dual, the dative case,
the optative mood and the infinitive. b. Similar phthongs to the phthongs of the ancient Greek Language, α,β,ο,ου,ι,μ,ν,λ,ρ,σ,ζ,π,β,φ,τ,δ,θ,κ,γ,χ however, the phthongical compositions of many words today have been
changed for easy speaking reasons (for a more simple and easier pronunciation)
or for reasons of meaning differentiation. I.e. χώρα, (place) and (x)ώρα > ώρα
(time), γρά(φ)μα > γράμμα, (ε)κδύω > γδύνω, κόνις> (σ)κόνη, πυρεία
> (σ)πύρ(τ)α, έλαιον > λάδι, παιδί(ον), φορείο (ν), λύσι(ς) > λύση. c. A similar syntax construction of the words to the syntax
construction of the ancient Greek Language (the words of the Modern Greek
Language are constituted by the elements: subject + ending + accent, which
depend on the part of speech and the type of the word. For instance, καλ – ός and - κάλ – ος, εξ – έχω > έξοχ – η
and έ – ξοχ – ή) ; however, some endings in the ancient Greek Language have been
abolished and some endings have been counterfeited for the simplification of
the language. E x a m p l e s: By abstracting the – s in feminine nouns: πράξ–ι(ς) > πράξ–η,
λύσ– ι(ς) > λύσ–η... By abstracting the –(o)ν in neuter
nouns: παιδί(ον), φορείο(ν), κουρείο(ν)… By adding the endings –οτητα and – αδα instead of the endings in Ancient Greek –οτης and – ας: οντότης
> οντότητα, μητρότης > μητρότητα, πεδιάς > πεδιάδα, Ελλάς > Ελλάδα… d. A similar inclination way to the inclination way of the ancient
Greek Language which is the inclination of words by adding and abstracting
specific endings; however, the modern Greek language has different
typological endings in many words: μητρότης
> μητρότητα, αγελάς > αγελάδα, πράξις > πράξη. In inclination the declined
words, the vowel of the their endings usually remains the same except in the
Genitive of the Plural Number: καλ–ή,ής,ή & καλ – ές,ών,ές… Ancient Greek: η τράπεζα, τραπέζης,
ο λοχίας, του λοχίου,… Modern Greek: η τράπεζα,
τράπεζας, ο λοχίας, του λοχία,… 4. The Modern Greek Language has: (a) One cases less: there is no dative case: «τω
νεανία, τοις νεανίαις,
τω
τιμημένω
νεκρώ, τοις
τιμημένοις
νεκροίς». (b) Abolished the dual in the declinable nouns: τω
οφθαλμώ (the two eyes), τω πόδε, (the two
feet), τω χείρε, (the two hands), τω Διοσκούρε
(Castor and Pollux). (c) One mood less: there is no optative mood: «λύοιμο,
λύοις, λύσοιμι, λύσοις». (d) Abolished the infinitive ending in –ειν
(it is substituted by derivatives ending in –(η)μα): «το καπνίζειν,
ομιλείν, απαγορεύεται, το
καπνίζειν / ομιλείν > το κάπνισμα
/ μίλημα». (e) Abolished the reduplication: (re) θωρακισμένος
> θωρακισμένος, λέλυκα, ελελύκειν = έχω
λύσει, είχα
λύσει. (f) Abolished the participles ending in – εις, - σας, - ων
: λύθεις, λύσας, λύων except the participles ending in ων which are
spoken as nouns or adjectives (they are me also ending in – οντας, ουσα):ο
ενάγων (or ενάγοντας), η
ενάγουσα, ο
παρών, η
παρούσα, ο
επιλαχών, ο
διευθύνων (or διευθύνοντας) σύμβουλος, η
άρχουσα
τάξη, η
τρέχουσα
τιμή, το
επείγον
έγγραφο. (g) The abolished the final – ν at the end of
the words, except the final – ν at the end of
the articles and the personal pronouns (τον, την, των) as well as the particles of mood (δεν,
μην). (h) Made οι the feminine article αι of the plural number: οι γυναίκες, (instead of αι γυναίκαι).
(i) Substituted the reference pronouns: όστις, ήτις, ό,τι, ώσπερ, υπέρ, όπερ, with the «που» or with the: ο οποίος, η
οποία, το
οποίον: _ Για πρώτη φορά
έβλεπε τον άνθρωπο τον άνθρωπο με τον οποίο μιλούσε C) The contemporary
form of the Greek Words The Modern Greek language does not present similar endings to the
endings of the ancient Greek language because, for simplicity reasons, many
declinated words of the ancient Greek language were differentiated according
to other words. I.e. τάξις > τάξη, πράξις > πράξη became like νίκη, τιμή. In the declinated nouns, the ancient “third inclination” was changed
into a mainly “first inclination” as following: (a) by changing the declinated ending Ancient Form Modern Form ο
ρήτωρ, του
ρήτορος.. ο ρήτορας, του ρήτορα… ο κλητήρ του κλητήρος ο κλητήρας του κλητήρα ο Έλλην του Έλληνος ο Έλληνας του Έλληνα ο γνώμων του
γνώμονος ο γνώμονας του
γνώμονα ο τάπης του τάπητος ο τάπητας του τάπητα ο κόραξ του κόρακος ο κόρακας του κόρακα ο γραφεύς του
γραφέως ο γραφέας του
γραφέα ο ανδριάς, του
ανδριάντος, ο ανδριάντας, του
ανδριάντα ο πατήρ του πατρός ο πατέρας του πατέρα η μήτηρ της μητρός η μητέρα της μητέρας η φλόξ της φλογός η φλόγα της φλόγας η μητρότης της
μητρότητος η μητρότητα της
μητρότητας η οντότης της οντότητος η οντότητα της οντότητας η λύσις της λύσεως η λύση της λύσης η τάξ ις της τάξεως η τάξη της τάξης η ακτίς της ακτίνος η ακτίνα της ακτίνας η αψίς της αψίδος η αψίδα της αψίδας η πεδιάς της πεδιάδος η πεδιάδα της πεδιάδας η Ελλάς της Ελλάδος η Ελλάδα της Ελλάδας η μονάς της μονάδος η μονάδα της μονάδας (b) By changing the gender ο βούς του βοός το βόδι του βοδιού ο κώνωψ του
κώνωπος το κουνούπι του
κουνουπιού ο λέων του λέοντος το λιοντάρι του λιονταριού (c) Ây changing the number αι Αθήναι των
Αθηνών η Αθήνα της Αθήνας αι Θήβαι των
Θηβών η Θήβα της Θήβας Ancient inclination of a declianated noun Singular Plural Nominative η τάξ – ις αι τάξ - εις Genitive της τάξ – εως των
τάξ - εων Dative την τάξ – η ταις
τάξ - εσι Accusative την τάξ – η τας
τάξ - εις Vocative ω τάξ – ι ω τάξ – εις Modern inclination of declinated noun Singular Plural Nominative η τάξ – η οι
τάξ - εις Genitive της τάξ – ης των τάξ - εων Accusative την τάξ – η τις
τάξ - εις Vocative τάξ- η τάξ - εις Ancient inclination of a verb: Uncontracted: τιμ –άω, -άεις, -άει, - άομεν, - άετε,
- άουσι (ν) Contracted: τιμ – ώ, - άς, - ά, - ώμεν, - άτε, - ώσιν δίδ – ωμι, – ως, -οσι, – ομεν, – οτε, –όασι Modern (new) inclination of a verb: τιμ – ώ, - άς, -
ά, - ούμε, - άτε , - ούν δίν – ω, - εις, - ει –
ουμε, - ετε, - ουν (The uncontracted types of the verb have been abolished) d) Duplication and Bilingualism Bilinguality is called the mixed language the usage of words that some
of which are, for instance, Greek and some are Latin or Turkish. I.e. ο
χασάπης, ο
μπογιατζής
και
ο
τελάλης
θα
έλθουν
εδώ, για
να – instead of: Ο κρεοπώλης,
ο
ελαιοχρωματιστής
και
ο
κήρυκας
θα
έλθουν
εδώ, για
να – The bilinguality is not allowed in a normal speech for reasons of
meaning and aesthetics. There is duplication whenever a word is spoken in two or more forms
with two or more different en dings of the same case (Ελλάς and Ελλάδα) for declinated nouns or the same
person of verbs (λες and λέγεις). The duplication is due to a mixing of ancient and modern types as
well as a mixing of types of the common Greek language with types of some
local dialect. The duplication bilimguality therefore is not allowed in a
normal speech. In order to avoid the duplication is necessary to learn which
are the endings (productive and declinable) of the Modern Greek Language and
which are the endings of the contemporary as well as the local language. e) The Endings of the
Modern Greek Language I. Endings of Verbs 1. Radical -ω : λύω – λύνω, πλένω
πνίγω, γράφω,… -έω-ω, αω –ω, οω-ω > – ω : καλέω
– ω, δράω – ώ, δηλόω – ώ (νω) -σσω / ττω : πλήττω, φράσσω, πράττω -υω : μηνύω, ιδρύω 2. Productive These verbs show what their subject is or becomes or has or provides
or does the statement of the original word. (a) Endings:- ώ, - ώνω {Verbs derived from nouns} κτύπος > κτυπάω –
ώ, τιμή > τιμάω – ώ, αγάπη > αγαπάω,… σημείο > σημειώνω,
σημειώνομαι, θεμέλιο – θεμελιώνω, ύψος > υψώνω, θυμός > θυμώνω, κλειδί
– κλειδώνω, σφήνα – σφηνώνω, πλάκα –πλακώνω {Verbs derived from
adjectives} χαμηλός > χαμηλώνω,
ψηλός > ψηλώνω, τυφλός > τυφλώνω (b) Ending: - εύω {Verbs derived from nouns} σημάδι > σημαδεύω,
σκοπός > σκοπεύω, γύρος > γυρεύω, όνειρο > ονειρεύομαι, δούλος
> δουλεύω {Verbs derived from
adjectives} στενός – στενεύω,
δύσκολος > δυσκολεύω (c) Endings: - ίζω, - άζω, - ιάζω {Verbs derived from nouns} ελπίδα > ελπίζω,
μέρος > μερίζω, αφρός > αφρίζω, σκούπα / σκουπίδι – σκουπίζω, αρχή >
αρχίζω, καλημέρα > καλημερίζω, σαράντα > σαρανταρίζω, κλαψούρης (κλαίω,
έκλαψα) – κλαψουρίζω, πόρτα – εκπορτίζω δόξα – δοξάζω,
γειτονιά – γειτνιάζω, πλαγιά > πλαγιάζω… {Verbs derived from adjectives or adverbs} συχνός, συχνά >
συχνάζω, αντίκρυ – αντικρίζω, όμοιος < ομοιάζω,
άδειος > αδειάζω (d) Endings: - αίνω, - υνω {Verbs derived from
nouns} ρύπος > ρυπαίνω,
ανάσα > ανασαίνω. {Verbs derived from
adjectives} πράος – πραΰνω,
φαιδρός – φαιδρύνω, λαμπρός > λαμπρύνω, οξύς > οξύνω, βραδύνω, δι
–ευθύνω, βαθύνω… μακρύς > μακρύνω ή
μακραίνω, βαρύς > βαρύνω or βαραίνω, φαρδύς > φαρδαίνω or φαρδύνω….. ακριβός – ακριβαίνω,
ζεστός > ζεσταίνω, θερμός > θερμαίνω… II. Endings of Nouns A.
Neuter 1. Radical endings, it meanings names: -ι: μαλλί, σπαθί,
τυρί, ψωμί… -ας: τέρας, κέρας >
κέρατο, πέρας, κρέας… -ος: μέρος, θέρος,
βέλος, τέλος, κράνος… -ως: φάος –φως,
καθεστώς (Contracted) 2. Endings derived from verbs, showing: a) The result or the consequence (product) of the action: -(μ) μα (From verbs endings in – ω) : γράφω > γράμμα, κλάμα
, -τάμα -εμα (- εύω): κλαδεύω
> κλάδεμα, κουρεύω > κούρεμα, γιάτρεμα…. -ωμα (- ώνω): φορτώνω
> φόρτωμα, ισιώνω > ίσιωμα, σημείωμα… -ημα (- ώ): κινώ >
κίνημα, μιλώ > μίλημα, πατώ > πάτημα… -ημα (-αίνω): μαθαίνω
> μάθημα, παθαίνω > πάθημα… -υμα (- ύω): μηνύω
> μήνυμα, λύω > λύμα, καταλύω > κατάλυμα… -σιμο (- ψιμο – ξιμο):
στρώνω > στρώσιμο, χάσιμο, ψήσιμο, τρέχω > τρέξιμο, σκάψιμο… -ητό: βογγώ
>βογκητό, παραμιλητό, ξεφωνητό, ροχαλητό, αγκομαχητό.. -ίδι: στολίζω >
στολίδι, σκουπίζω > σκουπίδι,… b) The institution or the bench of the action (service) -τήριο, - τρο:
εκπαιδεύω > εκπαιδευτής - εκπαιδευτήριο, γυμναστήριο, δικαστήριο, θεάομαι
/ θεατής } θέατρο, κάνιστρο, άγκιστρο c) The tool of the action -τήρι : κλαδεύω }
κλαδευτήρι, ξυπνητήρι, ψαλτήρι, σκαλιστήρι… 3. Endings of nouns derived from other nouns – showing: (a) Τhe institution
or the bench of the action (service) : -είο (accented ending) = simple institutions: κουρέας > κουρείο, ιατρείο, γραφείο, Δασαρχείο… -ειο (Unaccented ending) = benevolent institutions: Ζάππας – Ζάππειο, Αβερώφειο -άδικο: ράφτης –
ραφτάδικο (instead of : ραφείο ), γαλατάδικο, ψαράδικο… -ιο: εστιάτορας – εστιατόριο, φύλακας – φυλάκιο… -αριό : πλύστρα –
πλυσταριό , σκουπιδαριό, καμπαναριό… (b) The multitude (collective): -λό (γ) ι :
άρχοντας – αρχοντολόι, συγγενολόι.. (c) The tiny or the caressing
designation (diminutive): -ούδι : άγγελος > αγγελούδι -ούλι : σάκος – σακούλι, κρυφτό – κρυφτούλι -άκι, α(ρ)άκι,
-(ουδ)άκι : αρνί – αρνάκι, ψαράκι, φυλλαράκι, αγγελ(ουδ)άκι… -άρι (ον) : κριός –
κριάρι, πάγκος – παγκάρι, γραμμάριο.. -άκι (ον) : δρόμος –
δρομάκι, παιδί – παιδάκι.. -ίδιο : κράτος – κρατίδιο, σφαίρα – σφαιρίδιο… (d)
The section -ι(ον): αέρας – αέριο,
όρος – όριο, κλάδος – κλαδί, σκάλα – σκαλί, σκαμνί.. B. Masculine 1. Endings derived from verbs: a) The acting person. They are analyzed into “he, she, it who, which + verb in the third
person of the Present” -της: ψάλω > ψάλτης, ράβω > ράφτης, κόφτης,
ναύτης… -της: κρίνω > κριτής, ανακριτής, υποκινητής… -ευτής: πρα(γ)ματεύω > πραματευτής, χορευτής… -ητής: μαθαίνω > μαθητής, ποιώ > ποιητής,
τηλεφωνάω –τηλεφωνητής, απαιτητής, καταπατητής, εκδικητής… -ήτης (- ώ): κυβερνώ
> κυβερνήτης, πλανήτης… -ωτής (- ώνω):
διορθώνω > διορθωτής, θεμελιωτής, λυτρωτής… -ιστής (- ίζω, - ω):
θερίζω > θεριστής, δικαστής, τραγουδιστής… -υ (ν) της : διευθύνω > διευθυντής, ιδρύω >
ιδρυτής ,μηνυτής… -ντής : λιπαίνω > λιπαντής, υφαίνω > υφαντής… -έας, - ιάς: κουρεύω > κουρέας, ιππέας, γραμματέας,
διανομέας γραφέας (γραφιάς), σκαφέας - σκαφτιάς… -ήρας: καλώ >
κλητήρας , κρατώ > κρατήρας… -(ά)τορας : συμβουλεύω
> συμβουλάτορας, εισπράττω – εισπράκτορας, διδάκτορας… b) The medium or the tool of the action They are analyzed into “he, she, it who, which + verb in the Present” -ος: τρέχω >
τροχός, τρέφω > τροφός, πέμπω > πομπός.. -τήρας, - τήρα:
κλαδεύω > κλαδευτήρι or κλαδευτήρας, κινητήρας, καταβρεχτήρας… c) The place of the action; It is analyzed into “there
where + verb in the Present” -τήριο: εκπαιδεύω –
εκπαιδευτήριο, γυμναστήριο, δικαστήριο,… d) The result of the action They are analyzed into “it which
+ verb in the Aorist (= past tense) or the Perfect Tense” -ος: λέγω > λόγος, φέρω
> φόρος, τρέμω > τρόμος, κατέχω > κάτοχος… -μός: πνίγω >
πνιγμός, κραδαίνω > κραδασμός, χάνω > χαμός, διωγμός, παλμός… -ωμός (- ώνω): λυτρώνω
– λυτρωμός 2. Endings derived from nouns, showing: a. Ideology or
Behavior -ισμός : Χριστιανός
> Χριστιανισμός, Έλληνας > Ελληνισμός,
άνθρωπος > ανθρωπισμός, εγώ – εγωισμός, αθλητισμός… b. The follower of an Ideology or Behavior -ιστής : Βούδας >
βουδιστής, ελληνιστής, ανθρωπιστής, εγωιστής… c. The caressing diminutive characterization -άκης :
κόσμος > κοσμάκης, Γιώργος > Γιωργάκης… -άκος :
δρόμος > δρομάκος, γεροντάκος… -ούλης : παππούς > παππούλης, αδελφούλης, Θάνος
> Θανούλης -ισκος : σατράπης > σατραπίσκος, θαλαμίσκος,
κολπίσκος.. d. Content
(concentrated) -(ι)ώνας : άχερα > αχερώνας, ελαιώνας, περιστερώνας,
καλαμιώνας -ιάς : πεύκο > πευκιάς, πλατανιάς… e. The vacationer or the operator -άς: ψάρια – ψαράς,
γάλα – γαλατάς, σίδερα – σιδεράς… -άριος : αποθήκη –
αποθηκάριος , βιβλιοθήκη – βιβλιοθηκάριος… -τζής : κουλούρια –
κουλουρτζής, παλιατζής, ταξιτζής… -ίας :
εισόδημα – εισοδηματίας , κτήματος – κτηματίας… -(ι) άρης : λύρα >
λυράρης , βάρκα > βαρκάρης , σκουπιδιάρης.. C. Masculine &
féminine a. Magna, large: - αρα, - αρού: φέτα > φετάρα, κοιλιά > κοιλάρα,
χορεύτρια, χορευταρού… - αρος, - αράς : παιδί > παίδαρος, παιδαράς,
κοιλαρά, χορευταράς b. Native: -ος , - ίδα: Γαλλία
> Γάλλος , Γαλλίδα, Ιταλία > Ιταλός, Ιταλίδα,.. -ίτης, -ίτισσα:
Αράχοβα > Αραχωβίτης, Πολίτης, Πολίτης, Ανατολίτης.. - αϊτης, - ίτισσα :
Μοριάς > Μοραΐτης, Μοραϊτισσα, Χρυσαϊτης… - ιάτης,,σσα : Μάνη
> Μανιάτης, Μανιάτισσα,… -(ι)ώτης,σσα:
Ηπειρώτης, Σουλιώτης, Γιαννιώτης, Γιαννιώτισσα -ι(α)νός,ή,ανός,α:
Ζακυνθινός,ή, Αφρικανός,ή, Αμερικάνος,α… -ιός, ιά,ιος,ια
:Θεσσαλονικιός, -ιά, Αιγύπτιος, Λημνιός, Μυτιληνιός, - ιά- αίος, - αία :
Αθήνα > Αθηναίος,α, Θηβαίος, Κερκυραίος,a.. - έζος,α : Βιέννη >
Βιεννέζος, Κινέζος, Κινέζα, Μαλτέζος, Δανέζα c. Surnames:
- ίδης,η (Pontus) :
μέλισσα > Μελισσίδης, Κωνσταντινίδης , Κρονίδης -άκης,η (Crete)
:Κυριάκος > Κυριακάκης, Κυριακάκη, Κασάπης > Κασαπάκης… -άκος,ου, -όγκονας,α
(Sparta – Mani): Πέτρος > Πετράκος, Δημακάκου, Δημαρόγκονας…. -όπουλος,ου
(Peloponnese – Morias): Μανώλης > Μανωλόπουλος, Δημόπουλος, Δημοπούλου… d. Being in relationship: -ώτης, - ώτισσα:
θίασος > θιασώτης, στρατός >
στρατιώτης, πατρίς > πατριώτης, πατριώτισσα … -ίτης, - ίτισσσα :
τέχνη > τεχνίτης,, μεσίτης, τραπεζίτης, πολίτης,… D. Feminine 1. Endings derived from verbs, showing: a) The action or the situation From the Present of the Active Voice: - η: γράφω > γραφή,
τέμνω > τομή, νέμω > νομή, μετέχω > μετοχή, εξέχω > εξοχή… - α : φέρω > φορά,
φόρα, ανασαίνω – ανάσα, παστρεύω, - πάστρα - εία (- εύω): λατρεύω
> λατρεία, πορεύομαι – πορεία, θεραπεία, βασιλεία, δουλεία - ειά (- εύω): δουλεύω
> δουλειά, γιατρεύω > γιατρειά - εια (- ώ): βοηθώ > βοήθεια, προσπαθώ >
προσπάθεια, ωφέλεια - ία (- ώ): (ο)μιλώ > ομιλία – μιλιά, βαθμολογώ-
βαθμολογία… From the Aorist (paste tense) of the Active Voice: -ση, ξη, ψη: λάμψη
(λάμπω), βράση, φύλαξη, τάξη, σκέψη -ωση (- ώνω): βεβαιώνω
> βεβαίωση, δικαίωση, δήλωση -ηση (- ώ): κυβερνάω > κυβέρνηση, γέννηση, κίνηση -ιση (- ίζω):
διαφημίζω > διαφήμιση -υση (- ύω): λύ (ν) ω
> λύση, φύω > φύση, μήνυση, ίδρυση -οιση: αθρόω > άθροιση b) The tool of action -ίδα : γράφω –
γραφίδα, λαμβάνω – λαβίδα.. -άλα : κρεμώ –
κρεμάλα, φουσκώνω – φουσκάλα.. 2. Endings derived from adjectives, showing the quality or the
peculiarity: -ία (accented, from adjectives ending in – ος)
: κακός > κακία, φίλος
>φιλία, σοφός > σοφία -α, -η (with alteration of accent) : αλμυρά
– αλμύρα, γλυκά – γλύκα, ζεστή – ζέστη, θερμή – θέρμη… -αδα : σκληρός >
σκληράδα, νοστιμάδα, αγριάδα, μονός > μονάδα… -ίλα : πικρός – πικρίλα, άσπρος – ασπρίλα, ξινός –
ξινίλα… -οσύνη : δίκαιος > δικαιοσύνη, καλοσύνη,
αγιοσύνη… -ότητα : αθώος >
αθωότητα, ορθότητα, βεβαιότητα… -ύτητα : γλυκύς >
γλυκύτητα, οξύς – οξύτητα, βαρύς – βαρύτητα, ταχύς – ταχύτητα.. & Endings derived
from nouns: -ότητα : εχθρός >
εχθρότητα, μητρότητα, ποσότητα,… 3. Endings derived from other nouns, showing: (a) The feminine of a masculine noun (or a masculine name): -αινα : Γιώργης –
Γιώργαινα, Τζαβέλας – Τζαβέλαινα, δράκος –
δράκαινα, λέων – λέαινα, λύκος – λύκαινα… (b) The caressing diminutive characterization: -ίτσα : Ελένη – Ελενίτσα, γάτα – γατίτσα,
κλωστίτσα,,, -ούδα,-ούλα: πλέξη – πλεξούδα, βρύση – βρυσούλα,
μητερούλα, κορούλα… (c) Content
(Concentrated) -ουριά : κλέφτης >
κλεφτουριά, λάσπη > λασπουριά, κουμπουριά… -ιά :
πλατάνια > πλατανιά, καλαμιά, αμμουδιά… -ωνιά : χειμώνας >
χειμωνιά, γειτονιά, συννεφιά, καλοκαιριά… (d) Plant -ιά : αμύγδαλο - αμυγδαλιά, κεράσια – κερασιά, αχλαδιά III. Endings of
Adjectives 1. Endings derived from Roots, (In various meanings: character, color) -ος,η,ο : καλός, σωστός, άσπρος, μαύρος… 2. Endings derived
from nouns They are analyzed in
preposition + nouns: πέτρινος = από πέτρα, εμπύρετος = με πυρετό, μηνιαίος =
κατά μήνα, or in the phrase « που είναι από / σαν + noun: ξύλινος = που είναι
από ξύλο); showing: a. Original
material or source -ένιος: ασήμι >
ασημένιος, σταρένιος, μπακιρένιος, μολυβένιος… -ινος : μαλλί > μάλλινος, ξύλο > ξύλινος,
πέτρα > πέτρινος… -ίσιος,α,ο: αρνί >
αρνίσιος, φιδίσιος, βαρελίσιος, βουνίσιος,
παλικαρίσιος… b. Color -ής, - ιά, ί : μέλι
> μελής, σταχτής, ασημής, βυσσινής -ινός, η, ο : πράσο
(πράσο) > πράσινος, κίτρο (κίτριον) > κίτρινος.. c. Content -άτος : αφρός >
αφράτος, μελάτος, κρασάτος, δροσάτος.. d. Repletion
(abundance) -εινός : σκότος >
σκοτεινός, φωτεινός, ορεινός, υγιεινός… -ηρός : τόλμη >
τολμηρός, λυπηρός, οδυνηρός, νοσηρός, μοχθηρός… -ιερός : δροσιά >
δροσερός, φθονερός, σκιερός, φλογερός -ώβδης,η,ες: ευωδιά
> ευώδης, μυώδης, θορυβώδης, κτηνώδης… -ηλός : απάτη >
απατηλός, υψηλός, σφριγηλός,… e. Dimension, weight, and size (width, length) -ύς, ιά, ύ : φάρδος
> φαρδύς, βαρύς, πλατύς, μακρύς,.. f. Appearance
or condition -ίστικος : αγόρι >
αγορίστικος, κορίτσι > κοριτσίστικος… -ωπός : χαρά > χαρωπός, σκυθρωπός… -ωτός : αγκάθι >
αγκαθωτός, μετάξι > μεταξωτός… -(ι) άρης : πείσμα
> πεισματάρης, κόκαλο > κοκαλιάρης… -λέος : δίψα >
διψαλέος, πειναλέος -ηλός, - ωλός : σιωπή
> σιωπηλός, απατηλός, αμαρτωλός, φειδωλός… -ερός : βροχή > βροχερός, φλόγα > φλογερός,
δροσερός… -ιος,α,ο: τιμή >
τίμιος, λόγιος, άθλιος, αιώνιος, μαραθώνιος, πλούσιος -είος : άντρας >
αντρείος, γυναίκα > γυναικείος… g. Time or
period -άτικος : Μάιος >
Μαγιάτικος, κυριακάτικος, χειμωνιάτικος… -ιαίος, - ήσιος :
μήνας > μηνιαίος, ημερήσιος, ετήσιος… -ινός : φθινόπωρο > φθινοπωρινός, θερινός ,
καλοκαιρινός,… h. Place or
country -ικός : Γαλλία, Γάλλος > γαλλικός, θεσσαλικός,
κρητικός, χωρικός… -ικος : Σούλι,
Σουλιώτης > σουλιώτικος,
ρουμελιώτικος… -αιος,α : Θήβα >
Θηβαίος , Κερκυραίος,α… -ιακός : ήλιος > ηλιακός, σελήνη > σεληνιακός… -κός,ή, ό : καρδιά > καρδιακός, οικογενειακός, ή…. -ικος : γέρος >
γέρικος, κλέφτικος, γύφτικος… 3. Endings derived from verbs They are analyzed in “he, she, who, it which + verb in the third
person; showing: a) He who provides or contains what the verb states: -τός (a’ conjugation): γράφω > γραφτός, σφικτός, σβηστός, ακουστός, σβηστός, ανοιχτός -ητός (β’
conjugation): ξυπνώ > ξυπνητός, κρατώ > ακράτητος, αγαπητός, ποθητός -ωτός (from verb in
–ώνω): καμαρώνω > καμαρωτός, αυλακωτός, απλωτός -ητικός, -ιστικός,
-ετικός: ενοχλώ > ενοχλητικός,
δροσίζω – δροσιστικός, παραπονιέμαι > παραπονετικός, ενεργώ
> ενεργητικός… -ερός : θλιβω >
θλιβερός, λάμπω > λαμπερός… -κός : καρτερώ >
καρτερικός, πειθαρχώ > πειθαρχικός… -(η) τήριος : κινώ
> κινητήριος, σώζω > σωτήριος…. -νος : σέβομαι > σεβνός > σεμνός, τέρπω >
τερπνός…. b) What must be done stated the verb: -ετέος: αφαιρώ >
αφαιρετέος, διαιρετέος, μειώνω – μειωτέος,
προσθετέος,.. c) He who is able to become what a the verb states: -σιμος : κατοικώ >
κατοικήσιμος, φα(γ)ώνομαι > φαγώσιμος…
4. Endings derived from other adjective: a.
Caressing diminutive: -ούλης : άσπρος >
ασπρούλης, κοντός > κοντούλης.. -ούτσικος : ζεστός
> ζεστούτσικος , μικρούτσικος , καλούτσικος,.. b.
Appearance: -ωπός : άγριος >
αγριωπός , κοκκινωπός , πρασινωπός… -ιδερός : μαύρος >
μαυριδερός , ασπριδερός… -ουλός : βαθύς >
βαθουλός , παχουλός , μακρουλός… 5. Endings derived from adverbs. They are analyzed in “he, she, who, it which is + adverb; showing
place or time: -ινός, - ινή, - ινό:
χθες > χθεσινός, κοντά > κοντινός, μακρινός, σημερινός, φετινός,
πύρινος -ιανός: παρακάτω > παρακατιανός , αύριο >
αυριανός IV. Endings of Adverbs The adverbs are derived from some adjectives, pronouns, participles
and adverbs having the endings: -ως, - α: καλός > καλώς , καλά , διαρκής >
διαρκώς , επόμενος > επομένως… -ού: άλλος > αλλού , αυτός > αυτού -θέ: εδώ > εδώθε , εκεί > εκείθε , ολούθε
, αλλούθε Normally the adverbs are derived: 1) From the nominative case of the Singular Number of masculine
adjectives and participles by abstracting the article and removing the accent
one syllable downwards if they accented on the antepenult (the adverbs are
written with -ω <omega> to be distinguished):
ο
καλός (adjective) > καλώς (adverb), ο
βόρειος (adjective) > βορείως (adverb) , ο
επόμενος (participle) > επομένως (adverb). Similarly: υπογείως, κακώς, αεροπορικώς, ομολογουμένως, προηγουμένως, δικαιολογημένα / -ως, ηθελημένα. 2) From the nominative case of the Plural Number of neuter adjectives by
removing only the article: τα καλά (adjective)
> καλά (adverb). Similarly: βόρεια, ετήσια, καλύτερα, βορειότερα, άριστα. 3) From the substitution of the ending – ως in adjectives ending in – ης: ο δυστυχής (δύστυχος), - η, - ο
+ adjective) > δυστυχώς ( = adverb)
Similarly: ευτυχώς , διαρκώς , διακαώς , συνεχώς , σαφώς. 4) From prepositions
or from other adverbs: εν > εντός , εν + αντί > έναντι, εκ > εκτός, εξ > έξω , επί + άνω > απάνω,
κατά>κάτω , ανά +μετά +εξ >
αναμεταξύ , χωρίς > χώρια,
εν ώρα > (ε) νωρίς , επί +
έτος > εφέτος – φέτος , αντί + άκρη >
αντίκρυ, όλη νύκτα >
οληνυκτίς , απόβραδο > αποβραδίς , κοντολογίς 5) From the indirect
cases (of the ancient Greek Language) : του χρόνου, τα (η) + ώρα > τώρα , τη ημέρα
> τήμερα + σήμερα , εξ ίσου > εξίσου,
επί ίσης > επίσης… |
|
CHAPTER 6th FALSIES FOR GREEK
LANGUAGE 1. The false of Indo-European
Language According
to certain European linguistics of 18/19th century AD (Italian F. Sasseti,
German F. Bopp, English W. Jones and others) three thousand years ago all the
peoples from The above opinions are wrong, because: 1) All
language has common words, because in each language there are in one hand
foreign words and “Linguistics loans” and in other hand sounding made words. Sound
made words are those made by the imitation of sounds in the environment (cry
of animals, soynd of air etc), i.e.: vuuu or bu… > bull,
buffalo, βους > βόδι, same: bomb, cry, … In all
word, all athletes, doctors, operatives, workmen… use common words, same
names, i.e.: Ολυμπία > 2) If
such language – nation had existed, she will had left
indication, script or architect monuments (inscription, epigraphs etc) 3) The ancient
writer Thucydides (A, 3 – 19) say that all peoples until 80 years after
Trojan war (the times of last cathodes of Doriens) was living with nomad and emigration vita, because
until these times there is not secure (army), agriculture etc. Cretan king
Minos was the first that makes naval army and lows and stopped the emigration
of Greeks in Aegean see etc. The ancient writer Herodotus (A 54 - 95) says
that until Trojan War there are not Greeks and barbarians, but all people was
barbarian, but some nomads. In these times for first time the Greek nation
delivered from barbarian nation etc. 4) All
language change day by day. See the New Greek language that is different to
ancient. 5)
Each language is made from his people in the time and from its lingual
ability. (For more see in Greek book: «Linguistics Lessons», by A. Krassanakis) 2. The falsies for the different ancient Greek
Language and for Greek historical script According
to a medieval point of view 1) The
New Greek write in the way their forefathers were once used to write speak.
They write in the ancient way (the ancient pronounce), but their pronunciation
is different (the pronounce of today). 2) The
ancient Greek language is different (variant) compared to the modern one
because the ancient Greek contained the phthongs (sound, voice of words) ω, η, υ, which have
survived in the modern Greek script traditionally and historically! Beginning the Erasmus from the thought
that the ancient Greeks it was not possible they begin the writing with a lot
of points (letters of alphabet) for same sound (phthong) of the word, e.g.
the letters Y and I for the sound [ι], the letters O and Ω for the sound [o] etc led from now on error conclusion: (I) The
writing of new Greeks (and the writings with the Latin characters, because
imitate the writing of ancient Greeks) is historical, because it maintains
from habit the letters Ω, Η, Υ… E.g.: τιμώ, καλώ … while they
ceased represent sounds of Greek language, because they coincided with the
accent of O, I, (II) The ancient
Greek language was different from news, because: a)
ancient contained also the sounds of words that was written with letters Ω,
Η, Υ, where the
letter Η
pronounced as long [ε], that is to say until two extended [εε], The
letter Ω pronounced as long [ο], that is to say until two extended [oo ] and Y as
[u ]. For the himself the clusters: AI EI YI OY AY EY IY, HY…. pronounced as
shows their digits, that is to say: AI = [ a-i ], EI = [ e-i ], YI = [ o-i ],
OY = [ o-i], AY = [ au ], EY = [ eu ], HY = [ eeu ]….. b) the
doubly similar letters mm, nn, ss,... pronounced and the two and not only the
one where pronounce today, c) the
letters d, b, g pronounced as "nt, mp, nk/g" and no until today. Pronunciation of ancient Greek words, according to the Erasmus: γεωργία (agriculture) =
"geoorgja" and no "gheorghίa", Ευρώπη ( It is
marked that: 1. The
above-mentioned opinion of Erasmus caused then reaction in very a lot of
scholars, Greeks and foreigners, as in Κλέωνα Ραγκαβή (Kl.
Ragavi) in the German (Vavaro) 2.
Above-mentioned Erasmus opinion (aspect), even if it is error, was imported
in the schools of west the 16th century and is in effect up to today. The above opinion of Erasmus is wrong,
because: A) Historical script is the script with the Latin
characters (English, Dutch, France etc) and not the Greek. In
these scripts we write many words like in Greek or Latin and not according to
a writing system, for examples: Greek:
πρόβλημα, τιτάν(ας), Γεωργία, Ευρώπη, ιδέα, τυπώ(νω), φωτοτυπία, νέο, Ολυμπιακός,
φιλοσοφία, τηλέφωνο...... & English: problem (“πρόμπλεμ»), titan(«ταϊταν»),
George
(«τζόρτζια»), Europe
(«γιούροπ»), idea
(«αϊντία»), type («τάϊπ»), prototype , new, Olympia philosophy, telephone,... Latin: cluba (κλούμπα
-κλούβα), cupa
(κούπα), & English: club («κλάμπ»), cup («κάπ»),
America,
plus
(«πλας»), imperial («ιμπίριαλ»), line («λάϊν»),
double
("ντάμπλ"), gates
(γκέϊτς) B) In
ancient Greek language there are the same phthongs (= sounds of words) as in
modern. Simple in Greek script, old and modern, there are homophone (same
sound, same voice) letters, the letters: o
& ω = (o), ε & αι = [ ε], η & υ & ι & ει & οι & υι = [ι]..., and each word is written with one of these
homophones letters according to its etymology (= according to its part of
speech, form of word: gender, number, case... and derivation or composition)
on the one hand in order to establish (help) its meaning and on the other to
distinguish the homophone (same sounds)
words, i.e.: καλώ & καλό, κουτί & κουτή & κουτοί, φύλο & φύλλο,... Rules:
The
verbs are writing with –ω: σήκω, καλώ, φοιτώ, λέγω... The adverbs with –ω(ς): καλώς, κακώς... παρακάτω, άνω, κάτω… The females with –η: Καλή,
κακή, Νίκη, νίκη... The males with –ο: Καλός,
κακός, Νίκος... The neutrals with –ο,ι: σύκο, κακό, ελαφρό... τυρί, φιλί... ,.............. Phonetic (oral speech):
“kalό,
sίko, άporo, άdhiko..... & Script with the Greek script: καλ-ό,
σύκ-ο, άπορ-ο, άδικ-ο,... (the
neutrals are writing at
ending with letter –ο ) &
καλ-ώ, σήκ-ω, απορ-ώ, αδικ-ώ,... (the verbs are writing at ending with
letter -ω) In
Greek script, if you see a written word with the letter –ω (at the ending),
it is mean that this word is verb: καλ-ώ,είς... With the letter -o = neuter: καλ-ό, σύκο.., with the
letter -η =
masculine: καλ-ή, καλ-ής..... In
examining the words we notice that many of them are homophones (similar
voice, same sound words) which was caused by either phonological variation or
their mutations in time and on inflection (because of homophonic endings): καλ(έ)-ω > καλώ, καλ(έ)-εις > καλείς, καλ(έ)-ει > καλεί...
(= verb, ρήμα) & καλός, καλή, καλό (= adjective, επίθετο ) & καλός
> καλοί (plural)... Moreover
in examining these same sound words, we notice that they do not belong to the
same kind of speech or gender or form of the words. In
addition, the Greek script have for some phthongs more letters than one (see
o & ω, η & υ & ι...), so that by
writing some parts of speech or types (gender, case etc) of the words with some
homophone letters on the one hand and with the rest on the other hand for
suggestion. In that way we distinguish between the same sound words and find
help in the analysis and discovering the meaning of a word. For instance: Phonetically: “καλός, καλί, καλίς, καλό…..” = In Greek script (Orthographically): καλώ, καλείς, καλεί...
(With –ω, if it
is verb) καλό, καλή, καλής, ...
(With – ο,η, if
it is adjective) καλώς (With –ως, if it is adverb) & καλός (with –ος
if it is adjective) καλή (With –η, if it is singular) &
καλοί (with –οι,
if it is plural) Same:
“ίλι” = ύλη & ίλη & ήλοι & είλη, “ίδι” = είδη & ήδη &
Ίδη, «λίπι» = λύπη & λείπει & λίπη, «φίλο» = φίλο & φύλο &
φύλλο, «λίρα»= λίρα & λύρα, «κουτί» = κουτί & κουτοί & κουτή... The
examples above show us that whenever there are no the homophone letters, we
are not able to know what we write.
Because of the same sound words we are not able to distinguish whether
a words is noun or verb, male or female, plural or singular.... 3) If the
new (modern) Greek script were historical, then: a) The
Greek words are always written with the same letters (as it happen in English
writing), however such something does not happen, see: Ancient (αρχαία): τιμάω, φάος, κόνις, πυρία, Ελλάς, ανθέει,
δένδρον… = modern (νέα):
τιμώ, φως, σκόνη, σπύρτα, Ελλάς, ανθεί, δέντρο… b) In a
lot of written words would exist dimension between accent and writing, as it
happens in the English for example historical writing. That is to say they
would be presented the phenomenon for the same letter we have very a lot of
or different accents or with a letter we depict different sounds of the
words, however such something it does not happen, see eg that in the words: καλή, σοφή, ώρα, θεός, συν, σφαίρα, θείος… (= good
(woman), wise man, hour, god, plus, ball, uncle…) the letters o,ω pronounce always
[o], the letter ε,αι always ε…. On the
contrary, see eg in English: ιδέα > idea (=
accent "αίntία"), Ευρώπη > Europe
(accent "ghjou'rop"), go (“nko-u”), doc (“ntok”),
come (“kam”), one (“oua'n”)…... where, and as we see here, the letters they
are always one and alone accent, but many, depending on the word (see eg that
the letter o pronounce when oou, when o, when a, when oua' ...). Naturally
in the Greek writing the tow digits letters: oυ, ει, υι, αι they have always also these
the this accent in all the written speech: καλοί, σφαίρα, καλεί, υιός, ποίοι… (= good, does
ball, call, son…) and various from diphthongs (= two phtongs, two sounds
of words): οϋ, εϊ, οϊ, υϊ, αϊ: προϋπόθεση, θεϊκός, δυϊκός, Μάϊος, ευνοϊκός… We
remind that: a) In
the Greek script the homophones letters (= these with which we suggest with
rules the etymology of words) are other of one only digit: o and ω, η and ι... and
other of two digits: ει and οι,υι…
And this for technical (comprehension, etymologycal)
reasons, as we saw in the book "Τhe Greek system of writing", A. Krasana'ki. b) The
diphthongs are distinguished by the two digits letters with the “διαλυτικά» (diaresis,
resolvents marks) and the accentual mark: παϊδάκια, δυϊκός, ολόϊδιος, θεϊκός, Μάιος.. (τα: αϊ, εϊ, οϊ.. = diphthong,
two sounds of word) & παιδάκια, θείος… (τα: αι, ει.. = two digits
letters), orthographic points that do not exist in the Latin writing so that the
linguists of this writing tangle the diphthongs with the two digits letters
and say error things (as that: αι, oι, υι… pronounced before as α-ι, ο-ι, ου-ι…, ..), something
that parrot, impermissible, and the current Greek linguists. 4) If in
the ancient Greek the letter ω pronounced as
oo, the letter η as εε…,
then: a) The words eg: πλοίαρχοι,
ανθρώπιναι, παράγωγη.. it would not be supposed they had
accentual mark there that has, but a syllable below, after it is not possible
is stressed word above from pro parali'gousa (= second syllable from final
syllable). Then this short and long y that
pronounced? . b) Why
exist the: εε, αα, ιι… in the words: νέες & νήες, ευυπόληπτος, πλέετε, Αθηνά & Αθηνάα, μνάα, Αβραάμ, Ααρών, περιίσταμαι, διίσταμαι, διισχυρίσθη, διισχυρίσατο, έπλεε, ποιέεις, πειέει, ποίεε, ποιέετε, Ετεοκλέες,.., προορίζω, πρόοδος, προοίμιο.....; See and
that charm of these and unanimous o & ω, η &
υ.... we
have help in the etymology of words in writing:: πρώτος & προ-ορίζω (with the two
oo, we understand that we have complex word), δια, διάφορος & διίσταμαι
(with the two ιι we understand that we have complex word), 5) If
the letters H and I and EI… in the ancient season they differed in the accent
or if e.g. two digits letter EI pronounced as εϊ,… as says the Erasmus, then: a) Why
ancient they said ορθογραφία (=
correct - spelling) and no ορθοφθογγία (=
correct sounding) b) Why
the letters Η, Ω before the
5th/4th century before Christ doesn’t exist in the signs of c) The
Plato ("Kraty'los") in one hand it wouldn't search it finds why
does happen this and in other hand it would not say what it says, that is to
say that letter H him we put instead I, when the thing is something long, the
letter I him puts instead the H when the thing is something small'…. as well
as that letter E in the word ΠΟΣΕΙΔΩΝ (=
Neptune) has entered perhaps for decency, hence is not read etc.: «Τω δε αυ
ιώτα προς τα λεπτά πάντα, α δη μάλιστα δια πάντων ιοι αν. Δια ταύτα το
<<ιέναι>> και το <<ιεσθαι>> δια του ιώτα απομιμείται….. Το δε αυ άλφα τω
<<μεγάλω>> απέδωκε και τω
<<μήκει>> το ήτα, ότι μεγάλα τα γράμματα. Εις δε το <<γογγύλον >>
του ου δεόμενος σημείου τούτο πλείστον αυτω εις
το όνομα ανεκέρασεν. (Κρατύλος 426 - 427 ), «Ποσειδώνα, το δε ε έγκειται
ίσως ευπρεπείας ένεκα» (Κρατύλος 402 e) (For more see in Greek book: «GREEK SCRIPT», by A. Krassanakis) |
|
CHAPTER 7th THE VALUE AND WORLD-WIDE CONTRIBUTION OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND SYSTEM OF WRITING 1. Reasons for
which the Greek language and the
Greek system of writing should once again become international and the
official protocol of the European Union. |
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The
Greek language and the Greek system of writing, as evidenced by scientific
sources, a watershed event not only
in the history of Western civilization with the Greek’s invention of the
alphabet and their system of writing, but also constitute
the means of precise expression by the creative human mind and spirit during
mankind’s initial great moments in the development of civilization and simultaneously
comprise the foundation, base and support for all other European languages. Specifically,
the Greek language is of fundamental importance to the languages and cultures
of the world, not only because it captured and recorded the most cultivated
and philosophical thought of the ancient world, but also because it is the
base and support not only of the modern Greek language, but also of a whole
list of others, such as Latin and the so called Latin-based languages (Italian,
English, French, etc.). There is no language today that does not contain
Greek words or derivatives of Greek words, and that is why it is considered
the “mother of all languages”. While the people of the world in
translating the ancient Greek writings (arts & science, literary,
philosophy, epics, poetry, etc.), they imported into their own languages
apart from the Greek intellectuality and thought many Greek words as well.
Innumerable is the Greek vocabulary that is found in the international arena
of languages and dialects. For example, it is estimated that the
international English language (i.e., English used globally) contains today
in excess of 50,000 words of Greek origin, for example: Greek: Ευρώπη,
αλφάβητο, γραμματική, συλλαβή, δίφθογγοι, Άγγελος, Βίβλος, βιβλιογραφία,
διάλογος, Εθνικός, Φαντασία, Γεωγραφία, Ιστορία, είδωλο, Χιλιόμετρο,
φιλοσοφία… English: Also, the Greek alphabet is of fundamental
importance to the world-wide art of writing and culture, not only because it
captured and precisely recorded the most cultivated and philosophical thought
of the ancient world, which today guides us, as linguist Charles Higounet
very rightly observes and remarks, but also and not only because it is the
base of the modern Greek art of writing, but also because of a whole list of
other writings, such as writings with Latin characters (English, Italian,
French, German, etc.), the Slavic writings (Bulgarian, Russian, etc.), as we
will see below, consequently the largest percentage of current writings. The Greek language and the Greek scriptures
are responsible for the birth and development of science and the arts. The
Greeks were the first to discover and implement the simple but perfect system
of writing, as we will see below, consequently having the capability to not
only easily record their experiences, but also by studying them at a later
time, they progressed and became first in the letters, arts and sciences:
Homer, Hesiod, Herodotus, Thucydides, Heracletus, Democritus, Plato,
Aristotle, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, and….and…and… The
first texts of Mathematics, Physics, Astronomy, Law, Medicine, History,
Linguistics, etc., were written in the Greek language and alphabet. The first
theatrical works (plays), as well as the Byzantine literary works have been
written in the Greek language. The
Greek language and Greek writing system were spread internationally first
during the period of Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic period that
followed. They were also used extensively during the Roman and Byzantine
empires, while many Roman men, the aristocracy and well to do citizenry came
to The
Greek language and the Greek alphabet are those that the most known ancient
religions were written and then spread throughout the world. That is to say,
that of the Olympian gods and Christianity (New Testament). Most Apostles:
Paul, John, Lukas, etc….Just as, many Hebrews had gotten a Greek education,
knew the Greek language and alphabet and for that reason they wrote the Gospels
directly in Greek for the purpose of making them known throughout the world. Also,
the New Testament became known throughout the world after its translation
from Hebrew into Greek. The
Greek language and Greek scriptures are those that helped in the decipherment
of many of the ancient writings. This happened, because during the period of
Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic period that followed, the Greek
language and alphabet were international and many signs, name plates,
columns, tombs, etc., were in scripted bilingually, i.e., the column of
Rosette in Greek and Egyptian, the epigram ‘Rampad’ in Alep in Greek, Syriac
and Arabic, the epigram ‘Arran’ in Aouran in Greek and Arabic, etc. In regard to the value of
the Greek Language: The
Roman statesman and philosopher Cicero said that if the gods spoke they would
use the Greek language. Gaita,
the German writer and philosopher, said that he had heard the Gospel in
various languages; however, when he heard it in Greek it seemed as if the
Moon had appeared in the sky. The
French Academician and Poet Claude Fauriel (1772-1844) said that the Greek
language assembles the wealth and homogeneity of the German language, the
clarity of French, the beauty of Spanish and the musicality of Italian. The
famous blind American writer Ellen Keller compared the preciseness and
perfection of expression of the human thought in the Greek Language with the
most perfect of the musical instruments, the violin. The
French writer and academic Margarite Yourceyar said: I loved this Greek
language for its robust plasticity, where each of its words certifies its
direct and different contact with the truths, and because whatever has been
said worthy by man, for the most part has been said in this language. The
Greek poet and academic The
German poet, historian and philosopher Schiller said: Cursed Greek, you have discovered
everything: philosophy, geometry, physics, astronomy….. You have left nothing
for us. “We are all Greeks. Our
laws, our literature, our religion, our arts, have their root in In addition to the above,
the Greek Language, alphabet and grammar, as we will further see, are nearly
perfect and the easiest of all others. Hence, for all of the
above, the Greek language and the Greek system of writing should enjoy
world-wide respectability, attention and protection and once again become
international and the official protocol of the European Union. ENGLISH SPEECHES WITH GREEK WORDS The former Prime Minister and professor
Xenophon Zolotas had given two speeches in Washington D.C. (on September 26,
1957 and on October 2, 1959), which remain memorable and characterized by the
international press as a “Linguistic Feat - Linguistic Epic! ”. The reason
for this was not only due to the content of these speeches but also due to
the language in which they were given. It is assumed that the language for
public speeches is English. In substance however, with the exception of a few
conjunctions, articles and prepositions the language is Greek. The attendees
that constituted the membership at the conference of the International
Monetary Bank for Reconstruction and Growth did not have any problem
understanding the uniqueness and magnificence of the text of the speeches
given by the Greek professor. The Speech of September 26, 1957 Kyrie, I eulogize
the archons of the Pan ethnic Nomismatic Thesaurus and the Ecumenical Trapeza
for the orthodoxy of their axioms methods and policies, although there is an
episode of cacophony of the Trapeza with IN GREEK Κύριοι, The Speech of October 2, 1959 Kyrie, It is Zeus' anathema on our epoch and the heresy of
our economic method and policies that we should agonize the Skylla of
numismatic plethora and the Charybdis of economic anaemia. It is not my
idiosyncrasy to be ironic or sarcastic but my diagnosis would be that
politicians are rather cryptoplethorists. Although they emphatically
stigmatize numismatic plethora, they energize it through their tactics and
practices. Our policies should be based more on economic and less on
political criteria. Our gnomon has to be a metron between economic strategic
and philanthropic scopes. In an epoch characterized by monopolies,
oligopolies, monopolistic antagonism and polymorphous inelasticities, our
policies have to be more orthological, but this should not be metamorphosed into
plethorophobia, which is endemic among academic economists. Numismatic
symmetry should not antagonize economic acme. A greater harmonization between
the practices of the economic and nomismatic archons is basic. Parallel to
this we have to synchronize and harmonize more and more our economic and
nomismatic policies panethnically. These scopes are more practicable now,
when the prognostics of the political end economic barometer are halcyonic.
The history of our didymous organization on this sphere has been didactic and
their gnostic practices will always be a tonic to the polyonymous and
idiomorphous ethnical economies. The geneses of the programmed organization
will dynamize these policies. Therefore, I sympathize, although not without
criticism one or two themes with the apostles and the hierarchy of our organs
in their zeal to program orthodox economic and nomismatic policies. I
apologize for having tyrannized you with my Hellenic phraseology. In my epilogue I emphasize my eulogy to the
philoxenous aytochtons of this cosmopolitan metropolis and my encomium to you
Kyrie, the stenographers. IN GREEK Κύριοι, Είναι
"Διός ανάθεμα" στην εποχή μας και αίρεση της οικονομικής μας
μεθόδου και της οικονομικής μας πολιτικής το ότι θα φέρναμε σε αγωνία την
Σκύλλα του νομισματικού πληθωρισμού και τη Χάρυβδη της οικονομικής μας
αναιμίας. Δεν είναι στην ιδιοσυγκρασία μου να είμαι ειρωνικός ή σαρκαστικός
αλλά η διάγνωσή μου θα ήταν ότι οι πολιτικοί είναι μάλλον κρυπτοπληθωριστές.
Αν και με έμφαση στιγματίζουν τον νομισματικό πληθωρισμό, τον ενεργοποιούν
μέσω της τακτικής τους και των πρακτικών τους. Η πολιτική μας θα έπρεπε να
βασίζεται περισσότερο σε οικονομικά και λιγότερο σε πολιτικά κριτήρια. Γνώμων
μας πρέπει να είναι ένα μέτρο μεταξύ οικονομικής στρατηγικής και
φιλανθρωπικής σκοπιάς. Σε μια εποχή που χαρακτηρίζεται από μονοπώλια,
ολιγοπώλια, μονοπωλιακό ανταγωνισμό και πολύμορφες ανελαστικότητες, οι
πολιτικές μας πρέπει να είναι πιο ορθολογιστικές, αλλά αυτό δεν θα έπρεπε να
μεταμορφώνεται σε πληθωροφοβία, η οποία είναι ενδημική στους ακαδημαϊκούς
οικονομολόγους. Η νομισματική συμμετρία δεν θα έπρεπε να ανταγωνίζεται την
οικονομική ακμή. Μια μεγαλύτερη εναρμόνιση μεταξύ των πρακτικών των
οικονομικών και νομισματικών αρχόντων είναι βασική. Παράλληλα με αυτό, πρέπει
να εκσυγχρονίσουμε και να εναρμονίσουμε όλο και περισσότερο τις οικονομικές
και νομισματικές μας πρακτικές πανεθνικώς. Αυτές οι θεωρήσεις είναι πιο
εφαρμόσιμες τώρα, όταν τα προγνωστικά του πολιτικού και οικονομικού
βαρομέτρου είναι αλκυονίδων ημερών αίθρια. Η ιστορία της δίδυμης οργάνωσης σε
αυτήν την σφαίρα είναι διδακτική και οι γνωστικές τους εφαρμογές θα είναι
πάντα ένα τονωτικό στις πολυώνυμες και ιδιόμορφες εθνικές οικονομίες. Η
γένεση μιας προγραμματισμένης οργάνωσης θα ενισχύσει αυτές τις πολιτικές. Γι'
αυτόν το λόγο αντιμετωπίζω με συμπάθεια, αλλά όχι χωρίς κριτική διάθεση, ένα
ή δύο θέματα με τους αποστόλους της ιεραρχίας των οργάνων μας στον ζήλο τους
να προγραμματίσουν ορθόδοξες οικονομικές και νομισματικές πολιτικές.
Απολογούμαι που σας τυράννησα με την ελληνική μου φρασεολογία. Στον επίλογό
μου δίνω έμφαση στην ευλογία μου, προς τους φιλόξενους αυτόχθονες αυτής της
κοσμοπολίτικης μητρόπολης καθώς και το εγκώμιό μου προς εσάς, κύριοι
στενογράφοι GREEK WORDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
(DICTIONARY) A. abyss,
academy, acme = ακμή, δόξα, acrobat, acropolis,
aegis, aerial, aerodrome, aeronautics, aeroplane, aesthetic, air, all,
allegory, allergy, alphabet, amalgam, ambrosia, amethyst, amnesia, amphibian,
amphitheatre, amphora, anachronism, anaemia, anagram, analogy, analysis,
anarchism, anathema, anatomy, angel, anomalous, antagonism, anorexia,
anthology, anticyclone, aorta, apathetic, aphorism, apocalypse, apologise,
apoplexy, apostasy, apostle, apostrophe, apothecary, archaeology, archbishop,
archdeacon, archipelago, architect, arctic, aristocratic, arithmetic, aroma,
arsenic, asbestos, ascetic, asphyxia, asthma, astrology, astronaut,
astronomy, asylum, atheism, athlete, atmosphere, atom, atrophy, aura, austere
authentic, autobiography, autocrat, automatic, autograph, autonomous,
autopsy, axiom. B.
bacterium, baptism, barbarian, baritone, barometer, basic, basil, bathos,
basis, Bible, bibliography, bigamy, biochemistry, biography, biology,
biplane, blasphemy, botany. C. call
= καλώ, calando,
callus, calyx, canon, captain, card, cartography, castor, cataclysm,
catacombs, catalogue, catalyst, catapult, cataract, catarrh, catastrophe,
catechism, category, cathedral, cathode, catholic, caustic, cell, cemetery,
cenotaph, centre, ceramic, chameleon, chaos, character, chart, chasm,
chimera, chiropractor, choir, chiropodist, chord choreography, chorus,
Christ, chromatic, chromosome, chronic, chronicle, chronological,
chronometer, chrysalis, chrysanthemum, cinema, cirrhosis, claustrophobia,
cleric, climacteric, climate, climax, clinic, code, colossal. Comedy, comic,
comma, cosmos, cosmetic, cosmonaut, cost, crisis, criterion, criticism,
crypt, crystal, cybernetics, cycle, cyclone, cyclopaedia, cyclotron,
cylinder, cymbal, cynic, cyst. D. deacon
= διάκων, decade, Decalogue, delta, demagogic, democracy,
demography, demon, demotic, dermatology, diabetes, diabolic, diadem diaeresis
(διαλυτικά), diagnosis, diagonal, diagram, dialect,
dialogue, diameter, diamond, diaphanous, diaphragm, diatribe, dichotomy,
dictator, didactic, diet, dilemma, dinosaur, dioxide, diorama, diphtheria,
diphthong, diploma, diplomat, disaster, disc, dolphin, dose, double,
draconian, dragon, drama, drastic, dynamic, dynamite, dynasty, dyspepsia,
disharmony… E.
eccentric, ecclesiastic, echo, eclectic, eclipse, ecology, economic, ecstasy,
ecumenical, ecumenical, eczema, egoism, elastic, electric, elegiac, elephant,
elliptic, emblem, embryo, emetic, emphasis, empiric, emporium, encyclopaedia,
endemic, energy, enigma, enthrone, enthusiasm, entomology, enzyme, ephemeral,
epidemic, epigram, epilepsy, epilogue, epiphany, episode, epistle, epistyle,
epitaph, epithet, epitome, epoch, erotic, esoteric, ether, ethic, ethnic,
ethos, etymology, eucalyptus, Eucharist, eugenics, eulogize, eunuch,
euphemism, euphony, euphoria, Eurasia, eureka, evangelic, exodus, exorcize,
exotic…… F.fable=φαύλος-μύθος,
fanatic, fantasy, father, frenetic=φρενήρης….. G. galaxy, gastronomy, general, genesis,
genus, genitive = γενική, George, geo, geography, geometry,
geocentric, geophysics, geopolitics, geology, geometry, gerontology,
gigantic, glycerine, gyro, government, grammatical, gramophone, graphic,
gymnasium, Gregorian, gynaecology….. H.
hagiology, halcyon = αλκυών, harmony = αρμονία, hecatomb, hectare, hedonism,
hegemony, helicopter, heliotrope, helium, helot, hemisphere, haemorrhage=αιμορραγία,
haemorrhoids, hepatitis, heretic, hermaphrodite, hermetic, hermit, hero,
heroin, Hesperus, heterodox, heterogeneous, heterosexual, hexagon, hexameter,
hierarchy, hieroglyph, hilarious, hippopotamus, hippodrome, history,
holocaust, holograph, homeopathy, homogeneous, homonym, homophone, hour = ώρα, (χώρα),
horizon, hymen, hyperbole, hypnosis, hypocrisy, hypotenuse, hysteria,
homosexual, horde, horizon, hormone, hour, hydrostatics, hydrophobia, hyena,
hygiene, hymn, hypertrophy, hypochondria, hypodermic, hypothesis. K. kaleidoscope,
kilo, kilocycle, kilogram, kilometre, kilolitre, kinetic, kleptomania…... l.
labyrinth, laconic, laic, lachrymal = δάκρυσμα, larynx, lava, lesbian,
lethargy, leukaemia, lexical, lithography, logarithm, logic, logistics, lynx,
lyre, lyric ….. M. macrobiotic, macrocosm, magic, magnet,
mania, mathematics, mechanic, medal, megacycle, megalith, megalomania,
megaphone, megaton, meiosis, melancholia, melodic, melodrama, meningitis,
menopause, metabolism, metallic, metallurgy, metamorphosis, metaphor, metaphysics,
meteor, meteorite, meteorology, meter, metre, metric, metronome, metropolis,
miasma, microbe, microbiology, microelectronics, micrometer, micron, micro
organism, microphone, microscope, mimeograph, mimetic, monarch, monastery,
monogamy, monogram, monolith, monologue, monomania, monoplane, monopoly,
monosyllable, monotheism, monotone, morphology, museum, music, myopia,
myriad, mysterious, mystic, myth….. N. narcissism, narcotic, nautical, nautilus,
necromancy, necropolis, nectar, nemesis, Neolithic, neologism, neon, news,
nerve, neoplasm, nephritis, neuralgia, neurasthenia, nominative =
ïíïìáóôéêÞ,
nostalgia, nymph. O. oasis, ocean, octagon, octane, octave,
octogenarian, octopus, ode (ωδή), odyssey, oesophagus, Oedipus complex,
orgy, oligarchy, Olympiad, Olympic, onomatopoeia, ontology, ophthalmic, optic
(optimist, option), orchestra, orchid, organ, organic, organism, organize,
orgasm, orphan, orthodox, orthographic, orthopaedic, osteopath, ouzo, oxide,
oxygen. ….. P. pachyderm, pagan=παγανιστής-ειδωλολάτρης, Paleolithic, paleontology, palm, panacea, panchromatic, pancreas, pandemic, pandemonium, panegyric=πανηγυρική ομιλία, panic, panoply, panorama, pantechnicon, pantheism, pantheon, panther, parabola=παραβολή, paradigm, paradox, paragon=παράγων-υπόδειγμα, paragraph, parallel, paralysis, paranoia, paraphrase, paraplegia, parasite, paratyphoid, parenthesis, pariah=παρίας, parody, paroxysm, patter, pathetic, pathology, pathos, patriarch, patriot, patronymic, pedagogue, pederasty, pediatrics, pedometer=βηματομετρητής, pentagon, pentameter, Pentateuch, pentathlon, Pentecost, Pepsis, perihelion=περιήλιο, perimeter, period, peripatetic, periphrasis, periphery, periscope, peristyle, peritonitis, petal=πέταλο άνθους, phalanx, phallus=φαλλός, phantasm, pharmacology, pharmacy, pharynx, phase, phenomenon, philanthropy, philately, philharmonic, philology, philosophy, philter, phlebitis, phlegm, phobia, phoenix, phone, phoneme=φώνημα, phonetic, phonograph, phonology, phosphorous, photo, photoelectric, photogenic, photograph, photolithography, photometer, phrase, phrenology, phthisis, physics, physiognomy, physiology, physiotherapy, planet, plasma, plasma, plastic, plectrum=πλήκτρο, pleonasm, plethora, plural, πλήθος, πληθυντικός, plutocracy, plutonium, pneumatic, pneumonia, pole=πόλος, polemic, policy, police, politics, polyandry, polygamy, polyglot, polygon, polymorphous, polyphony, polypus, polysyllable, polytechnic, polytheism, porn, practice, pragmatism, presbyter, prism, problem, prognosis, programmer, prologue, prophecy, prophylactic, proscenium=προσκήνιο, proselyte, prosody, protagonist, protocol, proton, protoplasm, protozoa, prototype, psalm, pseudonym, psyche, psychedelic, psychic, psychoanalysis, psychology, psychopath, psychosis, psychotherapy, pterodactyl, pylon=πυλώνας, pyramid, pyre=πυρά, pyrites, pyrotechnics=πυροτέχνημα, python….. Q = k: qoppa – Kappa … R.
radio, Reyna, rhyme, rhythm….. S. sandal,
sarcasm, sarcophagus, sardonic, satyr, scene, skeptic, schematic, schism,
schizophrenia, scholar, scholastic, school, scoria, scorpion, Scylla, seismic,
semantic, semaphore=σηματοφόρος, septicemia=σηψαιμία,
serial, sir, solecism=σολοικισμός, sophism, spasm, sphinx,
stadium, stalactite, stalagmite, star, static, statistics, stereophonic,
stereoscopic, sternum, stigma, stoic, stomach, strategy, stratagem,
stratosphere, streptococcus, streptomycin, strophe, sycophant, syllogism,
syllable, symbol, symmetry, sympathetic, symphony, symposium, symptom,
synagogue, synchronize, syncope, syndrome, synod, synonym, synopsis, syntax,
synthesis, syphilis, syringe, system….. T. tactic, talent, tantalize = Τάνταλος,
tartar, tautology, taxidermy, technique, technocracy, technology, telegram,
telegraph, telemetry, teleology, telepathy, telephone, telephoto, telescope,
theatre, theism, theme, theocracy, theology, theorem, theoretic, theory,
theosophy, therapeutic, therapy, thermo, thermal, thermion, thermometer,
thermos, thesaurus, thesis, tone, topography, Trapeze, tragedy, tragicomedy,
tremor, trigonometry, trilogy, tripod, trireme = τριήρη, triple,
trophy, tropic, typhoon, typo, typical,
typography, tyranny….. U.
unanimous, anonymous,
Uranus, uranium…… V = W = B(β): basic, barbarian.. X. xenophobe, xylophone, xenia, xenon ….. y. hypo - hyper , super = υπό - υπέρ….. Z. Zeus
= Ζευς, zephyr, zeugma, zodiac, zone, zoology….. 2. The Greek language Why the Greek Language by a single vote
lost, from once again, becoming the official
international language Because
in the middle of the past (20th) century the interdependence of nations
in the sectors of economy, arts & science created the need for
international diplomacy and communication with a single common language, and
because the most widespread up to then languages, such as English, French,
German, Chinese, and others are very difficult to learn, certain scholars
proposed the reintroduction of Ancient Greek or Latin as the official
International language. However,
this idea was rejected because both of these languages are not being spoken
and consequently they do not serve the requirements of an emerging world,
while others claimed that this problem would be resolved by the so called
artificial languages that had begun to appear. This
rejection however, was a big mistake, because: 1) The
Greek language other than its world-wide contribution, it is also the easiest
and the only language capable of the most comprehensive transmission of
meaning, nearly perfect, as we will see below. 2) The
ancient Greek language even though is not been spoken today, nevertheless its
continuity exists through modern Greek, which of course, is as rich and
beautiful as the ancient Greek, and perhaps a bit beyond. And we are saying
this, because the modern Greek language has vastly increased its vocabulary
through the creation and addition of new words, and also through
simplification by the Greek literary scholars of some of the difficult parts
of the ancient Greek grammar, such as (suffixes, noun and adjective cases,
elimination of orthographic symbols, etc.), and thus the modern Greek
language is simpler and more precise than the ancient Greek. 3) The
artificial languages, as we will see below, have been proven to be for
simplistic communication and nothing more. It is also noted, that: 1)
According to the assumptions of those supporting the artificial language
‘Esperanto’ (see, encyclopedia “SCIENCE & LIFE”, and others), in 1900 the
official international English language was being spoken by roughly 10% of
the world population. In 1950 11%, while today decreased to 8.5%. According to some, this reduction is due to
the English language and writing being too difficult to learn. 2) It is
said that, in a meeting that took place in New York City at the end of the
20th century by renowned economists and arts & science scholars in order
to decide which will become for them the official international language, the
Greek language lost by a single vote, cast by the Polish (however of Jewish ancestry) doctor
Lazarus Loyntbich Zamenchof (L.L. Zamenchof, 1859 - 1917) or with his
philological pseudonym " Doctor Esperanto ", and thus the name of
the artificial language Esperanto that he created. 3) The
artificial languages were created by selected words that are common in many
languages (the Esperanto language is basically based on the vocabulary of
languages of Latin origin: English, French, German) and it is assumed with
inventive rules of writing and spelling, syntax and conjugation, to
facilitate ease of learning. However, these languages are only for simplistic
communication, because for a comprehensive transmission of meaning the
requirement is a natural language. In addition, the artificial languages are
incapable of doing what a natural language appears to be able to do, and
because there are very many of them or that they only address specific
individuals. The Greek
language has an extremely precise expression and an easy
and unlimited reproductive capability of words. Observing the words of the Greek language we see
that some are common, simple (single) words while others are compound, i.e.: γράφω, δια-γράφω, εξ-υπ-ακούγεται… and, all to
be constituted or made-up (except the: articles,
conjunctions and prepositions)
from specific component elements, known as: root, prefix, subject, accent (tone), suffix (derivative), and suffix
(vocative-case sensitive), whereby each one of them produces a
proportional meaning in the word, i.e.: γράφ-ω (= verb, present tense, 1st person), έ-γραφ-ες, (= verb,
past tense, 2nd person)
, δια-γραφ-ή (compound
verb, compound noun, compound adjective)… εξ-έχ-ω, εξ-οχ-ή, έξ-οχ-η.. Stem (subject) is a group of two-character letters
(GK. phthongs) which is common in many simple words, as e.g.: the stem
subject “γραφ-“ in the words: γραφ-ω, γραφ-ή…The stem
subject relates to the sounds of nature and it is either a self-produced
sound of some being or processed sound (something like the marble and the
statue), i.e., κρα-κρα… > κράζ-ω, τρ… > τρίζω, τρίβω, τριβή… vow.. or bouu… > boul, βους… Derivative and
vocative suffixes are called
the specific two-character letters (GK. phthongs) with which we produce the
parts of speech (= the nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.) and also conjugate (we
form the singular or plural, as well as the nominative case, possessive case,
etc), the combination of the two-character letters (GK. phthongs) with which
we reveal or imply the part of speech or the signified type, that is to say
what we want to express, e.g.: Stem subject γραφ- and words: γράφ-ω, γραφ-έας, γραφ-είς, γραφ-ή, γραφ-ές, γραφ-είο, γραφ-ικ-ός,ή,ο, γραφ-ομεν-ος,η,ο…. Consequently the Greek words have affinity, causal
relation and expression, while simultaneously the Greek language has
unlimited possibilities to generate new words. Contrarily, in the other languages basically there
are no constituted component elements of words, but a fixed quantity of words
whereby the structure of these words (in reality, syntax by apposition)
produces the expression (the oral speech). Observing for example, the vocabulary of the Chinese
language (note, somewhere between the Greek and Chinese languages are the
other languages) we see that there are all and all 328 simple and indeclinable monosyllable words (similar to the
Greek indeclinable words (conjunctions): με, σε, επί, συν, δια, μετά…),
from which with simple composition and a gradual rise-and-decline of
the voice in the oral speech crop up the remainder, e.g.: see, the below
Chinese words: “πε” = κύπελλο, cup“τσιμ” = χρυσός,η,ο, golden «τσιμ πε» = χρυσό κύπελλο, gold cup, «τσάου» = μέρα, day, «νι τσάου» = καλημέρα, good day, «σιαμ-σουέ» = το άρωμα (το αρωματόνερο), aroma, «σεν» = ο Θεός,God, «σί-λά» = η Ελλάδα, Greece, «τσούν-κούο» = η Κίνα, China, «μέϊ-κό» = η Αμερική, America… Observing also the various current European
languages (English, French, Spanish, etc.) we basically see that all of them
also do not have any linguistic productive code of communication, but that
they resemble the Chinese language, that is to say they express with the ‘at
apposition syntax’ of words, e.g.: in English: I go, go on,… I love, you
love, the love, of love… = ελληνικά πάω, προχωρώ, αγαπώ, αγάπη… Hence, we do not have only 328 words, but many more
from which some are generated with suffixes, e.g.: in English: Lovely,
loveless, lovelies…. and others are Greek or Latin etc, e.g.: Ευρώπη ( And because in the other languages, more or less,
the words do not have constituted component elements, the words are usually
composed of a few syllables and without significant productive capability,
while in contrast the Greek language in relation to the others has an
extremely easy and unlimited productive capability for words. These are the reason for which: a) The Greek language has
the richer vocabulary than all other, b) The other languages are usually borrowing
(take) words from other languages (usually from Greek and Latin) or create words with
Greek and Latin constituted component elements of words, e.g.: τηλέφωνο -
telephone (tele + phone), πρωτοτυπία > prototype (proto + type), photo types…. The Greek
language has clarity and
expression Because the
words of the Greek language are constituted by concrete and specific
component elements (root or subject + suffix, etc.) and at the same time each
one of them expresses with logical correctness something concrete for the
signified type (the prefix - e - expresses action in the past, the suffixes
express the part of speech or the signified type, that is to say if the
signified type is active or passive, noun or adjective, masculine or
feminine, etc., that is why: A) The Greek words are expressive and absolutely
explicit in their meaning and easy to comprehend. Their meaning becomes clear
by simply analyzing their constituted compound elements, i.e.: λύν-ω, έ-λυσ-α, γράφ-ω, γραφέ-ας, γραπτ-ός, γραφ-ική.., For example, the word “verb” in the Greek language
in addition to other things with the suffix reveals: a) Which precisely is the subject of this part of
speech or sentence (that is to say if the subject is the speaker or the
listener or a third person): αγαπώ, it means,
I = the speaker = subject, αγαπάς it means, you = the listener = subject, αγαπά, it means,
he, she, it = the third person = subject…, b) Voice (whether we are active or passive): I love
(Yannis…) = active voice & I am loved (by Yannis.) = passive voice. c) Tense (the present, the past and the future)
active or passive: λύν-ω = active now & έλυσ-α = active past tense…. This is something which in order to be said in other languages it must be said
together with other words, for example: αγαπώ, ας,α
= I love, you love, he-she-it loves… αγαπιέμαι = I am loved by John. B) In the Greek language there is the capability to
form many rhetorical and syntactical types of speech for the purpose of
correctly expressing or accentuating (emphasizing) the meaning of the speech,
for example: The train is driven by George. = subjunctive syntaxes, Ο Γιώργος οδηγεί το τραίνο. = indicative syntaxes,
Ο Γιώργος είναι οδηγός του τραίνου. = imperative syntaxes. George not only went, but he also hit Aris = George
other than he went, he also hit Aris. Instead of simply: George went and hit
Aris. In the
Chinese language (somewhere between the Greek and Chinese languages are the
other languages), because the words do not have constituted compound elements
(suffixes, etc.), they have many meanings or they belong to several parts of
speech (they are something like the stems (subjects): γραφ-, καλ-, αγαπ-.. in Greek) and their meaning is arranged: a) From the intensity of the tone, e.g.: in Chinese:
"κιό (very accentuated) = water
& “kio"? (less accentuated) = I ask, something similar to the Greek
indeclinable words: η & ή (In the
indeclinable polysyllabic words the meaning is determined proportionally from
which syllable is accented, while in the Greek language: seldom & never…) b) From the position that the word in question is in
the sentence (or from what other word it has before or after). e.g.: in the
English word love, where this word (or any other), if it is said with a
pronoun it becomes verb: i love
= αγαπώ, if it is
said with the article “the” it becomes noun:
the love = η αγάπη… if it is said
with the word “of” it becomes a noun in the possessive case: of love = the
love of, etc. Hence, that which we reveal with the suffixes,
inflection and declension in the Greek language, it is done in the other
languages by placing before or after the word in question one other word. This is also
the reason that: a) In the
Greek language if we even utter a single word, we become absolutely
comprehensible or explicitly clear, for example: αγαπ-ώ, αγάπ-η, αγαπ-άς, αγαπ-ά... b) In the other languages, in order to become
comprehensible or absolutely and explicitly clear, we must speak with
complete sentences of the syntactical type: Υ + Ρ + Α or Κ , where Υ =
subject, Ρ = verb, Α = object, Κ = predicate: I love you. He loves me. Mary
loves books. Love is a good thing. Greek is the most euphonic and easy to pronounce language Comparing the vocabulary, the words of the Greek language with those
of other languages we see that Greek words are easier to pronounce and at the
same time more beautiful and appealing to the sense of hearing, and that is
because: 1) The Greek words are created with constituted compound elements (=
the root or the subject + tone (accent) + suffix, etc.) and do not have
difficult clusters (that is to say difficult in tone μπ(b), ντ(d), γκ(g), νμ, νρ, νλ…), since the Greek language through the passage of time has removed
or altered them, i.e.: In the Greek words, μπογιατζής > βογιατζής, γκαρίζω > γκάιδαρος > γάιδαρος, Μπενετία (Benetia >
Venetia) > Βενετία ή Ενετία, συν-μαθητής > συμμαθητής, συν-λέγω > συλλέγω, συν-ράπτω > συρράπτω, τιμάω > τιμώ, τιμάεις – τιμάς, Αθηνάα > Αθηνά… In the verbal speech: in Greek, Φέρε τη(ν)
μάνα σου και λίγ(α) απ(ό) όλα και θα σ(ε) αγαπώ. Consequently, the Greek vocabulary (words), the Greek oral speech is a
creation that resulted as the timber and the furniture or the Stone and the
marble. Contrarily, in the other languages the words are usually with few
syllables and few vowels, something similar that occurs with words in the
Greek Language, i.e.: in English: good, max, two, I love, you love… 2) The Greek words are not accented in an accidental or specific
syllable from the last syllable (suffix) of words, as it happens with words
of other languages resulting in being heard monotonously, but where the part
of speech or the type of word determines and harmonizes and thus the tone in
Greek helps us with the comprehension of the word while producing beautiful
audibility in the verbal speech, e.g., in the Greek polysyllabic words the
adjectives are accented in the antepenultimate
syllable, the verbs in the penultimate
syllable and the nouns in the final
syllable: in Greek, έξοχος,η,ο, άδικος,η,ο, κάθετος,η,ο, έ-ξοχη, εξο-χή, ε-ξέ-χω, ε-ξέ-χει,… κά-λος, κα-λός, …. The French language usually accentuates the words in the final
syllable, e.g.: pieta... and the English language in the antepenultimate
syllable (or in penultimate syllable, if there is no antepenultimate), e.g.:
love, anderlect, 3. THE GREEK SYSTEM OF
WRITING THE GREEK SYSTEM OF
WRITING (GREEK GRAMMAR, ORTHOGRAPHY) Greek
orthography in writing (spelling of words) is produced systematically and
according to predefined grammatical rules, contrarily to writing in languages
with Latin characters (English, French…) because here the writing is of
historical type, that is from Greek or Latin. In the
Greek writing system there is the sound of a letter in the word (Gk.
Phthongs) and also the two-character sound alike letters (Gk. Phthongs),
which have been previously defined along with specific rules on how they are
being distinguished and used. The Greek letters: O(o) = Ω(ω), Ι(ι) =Υ(υ) = Η(η) = ΕΙ(ει) = ΟΙ(οι) = ΥΙ(υι), E(ε) = AI(αι) are sound-alike (homophone letters) and are used
in Greek writing according to specific orthographic rules (i.e., part of
speech, gender - masculine or feminine-, singular or plural case, conjugation
– nominative, possessive or objective case of the words) in order to reveal
the etymology, that is to say the derivation and precise meaning of the
written words or to distinguish and differentiate the sound alike (homophone)
words. e.g.: καλός &
καλώς, καλή & καλεί & καλοί... The Greek alphabet
In the Greek writing system, ancient and
modern: 1) The
first sound character (Gk.phthong) of the Greek alphabetic words ά-λφα, β-ήτα... reveals which
letter this sound character (Gk. Phthong) represents, i.e.: λ-άνδα (“landha”) = the
sound character (phthong) [λ] =
[l]. This
is something that does not occur in writing with Latin characters in (English,
French... ). See for example the letter A (a) of the English
alphabet. It is pronounced here as e+i and in the words: 2) In
Greek there are the homophone letters, e.g.: O & Ω, Η & Υ & Ι…. This
is something that does not exist in any other language. 3) In
Greek all letters represent only one sound character (phthong) and it is the
same throughout the process of writing. Even if a word is spelled orthographically
incorrect, it still is pronounced correctly, i.e: Greek:
«Αύριο θα πάμε εκδρομή στην Αθήνα». Here
the letter A(a) is always pronounced as [α] and not [ε] or [o]..., as it happens in English). Greek
incorrect spelling: <<ίνε καλί γινέκα” Correct spelling: Είναι καλή γυναίκα.)>>. This
is something that does not occur in the English, French, German and others in
their spelling and pronunciation process.
See for example the English word: go
where the letter O(o) is pronounced as “ou”, and similarly the English word
“idea”, pronounced «αϊntία», where we have
4 letters and 6 sound characters (phthongs). 4) In
Greek there are letters for all sound characters (phthongs). That is for all
the consonants and for all vowels, (see the letters of the Greek spelling
system instead of the alphabet). This
is something that does not occur in English or French, German, etc. spelling
process. In English, for example, writing the phthongs (sounds of words)
<<th-is>> and <<th-ing>> they are written with the
same letters, the letters TH(th), but in Greek spelling there are two
distinctly different letters, the letters Θ(θ) and Δ(δ, i.e.: Θεός, Δίας… The
same occurs and with the letters Γ(γ), etc. 5) Some
homophone sound characters (phthongs) consist of a single letter, while
others consist of more than one, i.e.: O & Ω, Y & H &
I, AI & ai… These homophone letters are used to distinguish and
differentiate the type of word, as for examples: λίρα & λύρα, καλό & καλώ.. For
more information see the homophone letters. In
this situation, in English spelling some homophone words have useless (not pronounced)
letters to differentiate from each other, as for examples: to
& t(w)o & to(o), rit(e) & (w)rit(e) & ri(g)t(h. Similarly:sent & cent & scent,
pare & pair & pear, boy & buoy,
no & know, sail & sale, grown & groan, war & wore, side & sighed, made & maid, night &
knight, soared & surd, hole & whole, morning & mourning ..... 6) In
Greek, all spelling of words is done through the sound characters (phthongs).
All the letters in the Greek spelling of words are pronounced the same
throughout the written content of words, except the letter Y(υ) in:AΥ(αυ), ΕΥ(ευ), ΥΙ(υι), OY(oy)… i.e.: Greek spelling: Σήμερα είναι Κυριακή και εμείς δεν
έχουμε σχολείο. (Here the letter a is always pronounced as a, the
letter e as e… etc). Pronunciation:
Simera ine kiriaki ke emis then ehume sxolio. Meaning:
Today is Sunday and we don’t have school. This
is something that does not occur in English or French, German... written
word. For example, in the English
words: go, come, one, more, to... where the letter O(o) is pronounced
sometimes “o” and sometimes “u” or “a” or “ou”,... 7) In
English the sound letter (phthong) U(u) is written with the two digit letter
OY(oυ) =
U(u). 8) The
letter H(h) is pronounced "h, ch, wh" as in "Bach, home, who”…
Similarly "ch" in "chair, Christ” 9) The
Greek letters: B(β), Γ(γ), Δ(δ) are different
from the Latin Β(b),
D(d), G(g) = MP(mp) NT(nt) NC(nc). The
Latin letters B(b), D(d), G(g) are abbreviations of the Greek MP(μπ), NT(ντ), ΓK(γκ). In Latin
spelling, we place the letters MP(mp), NT(nt), NK(nk/nc) in the compound
words and the letters B(b), D(d), G(g) in the simple words: com-plex >
complex & Babylon, con-tact & dactyl, in-correctly, Booboo = μπουμπού, Goal = γκολ, double = νταμπλ. 10) The Greek letter sigma Σ(s,σ) has two
distinct shapes. When written at the end of a word, it is written like this:Σ(ς). If it
occurs anywhere else within a word, it is written like this: Σ(σ). στύλος = ΣΤΥΛΟΣ, pronounced
“stilos”. Whe 11) The Greek letter Y(υ) is
pronounced some times as i as in "in" and some times as v or f (for
more on this see below). 12) In Greek spelling each sound character (phthong)
is written with a specific corresponding letter. When we read a written word, each letter is pronounced
separately and clearly, that is, all letters are pronounced as they appear in
the Greek alphabet: άλφα, βήτα, γάμα…, i.e.: καλό = k(apa) + a(lfa) + l(andha) + ό. In the Greek word Πατέρας: We have the phthongs and letters Π,α,τ,ε,ρ,α,ς. Put the sounds together syllable by syllable: Π and α = Πα
- sounds pa + τ and ε
= τε - sounds te + ρ and α and ς = ρας - sounds ras All together it is "pateras", which means
"Father". In the Greek word Ουρανός: We have the phthongs and letters ου,ρ,α,ν,ο,ς. Put the sounds together syllable by syllable: ου = two-character sound letter = u
as in put, Lou, ρ and a = ρα - sounds ra ν and ο and ς = νος - sounds nos All together it is "(o)uranos", which means "sky" The
Methodology (techic) of the Greek
Writing System You hear the consonant phthong [m] and write the
letter M(μ). similarly, you see the letter M
(μ) and you write the consonant phthong [m]. You hear or pronounce the word “μάνα” (= mother), which consists of the phthongs
(sounds, homophones) “μ-α-ν-α” (= m,a,n,a), and then you write the letters “μάνα” (= m,a,n,a). You see the letters of the word «μάνα» and pronounce the phthongs (sounds,
homophones) “μ/ά/ν/α (m/a/n/a)”. In other words, the word «μάνα» is written this way, because the consonant
(phthong) [μ] has been grammatically defined to
be written with the letter Μ(μ), the phthong [α] with the letter A(α)....etc. Consequently, the word “μάνα” is being read this way, because the designated
letter M (μ) produces the phthong [μ] etc. English: “I am tailor” = In Greek it is pronounced and written: «άϊ αμ τέϊλορ» = using Greek words: Εγώ είμαι ράφτης. The orthographic rules are as follows: The suffix (last syllable) of verbs is written with
–ω: σήκω, καλώ, φοιτώ, λέγω... The suffix of adverbs is written with –ω(ς): καλώς, κακώς... παρακάτω, άνω, κάτω… The suffix (last syllable) of nouns and adjectives
feminine gender is written with –η: Καλή, κακή, Νίκη, νίκη... The suffix of nouns and adjectives masculine gender
with –οs: Καλός, κακός, Νίκος... The suffix of nouns and adjectives neuter gender
with –ο,ι: σύκο, κακό, ελαφρό... τυρί, φιλί... Phonetic (oral speech): “kalό, sίko, άporo, άdhiko..... & spelling the Greek
words: καλ-ό, σύκ-ο, άπορ-ο, άδικ-ο,...(the suffix of the neuter gender is written with the –ο ) & καλ-ώ, σήκ-ω, απορ-ώ, αδικ-ώ,...(the suffix of the verbs is written with the
letter -ω) In Greek writing, if you see a written word with the letter –ω (as a suffix, last syllable), it signifies that this word is a verb: καλ-ώ, -είς.., with the letter -o it signifies that this word
is a neuter noun or adjective: καλ-ό, σύκο.., with the letter -η it signifies
that this word is a feminine noun or adjective: καλ-ή, καλ-ής..... etc. In examining the letters in words we notice that
many of them are homophones (similar voice, same sound letters) caused by
either phonological variation or their changes or inflection through the
passage of time (because of the homophonic suffixes): καλ(έ)-ω > καλώ, καλ(έ)-εις > καλείς, καλ(έ)-ει > καλεί... (=
verb, ρήμα) &
καλός, καλή, καλό (= adjective,
επίθετο ) & καλός > καλοί (plural)... Moreover, in further examining these same sounding
letters in words, we notice that these words don’t belong to the same part of
speech or gender or type of words. In addition, the Greek spelling orthography has for
some phthongs more than one letter (see, o & ω, η & υ & ι...), so that by spelling a word in a specific part of speech or type
(gender, case, tense, etc.) with some homophone letters we can distinguish
and differentiate between the same sounding words and it also helps us in
determining the etymology and meaning of the word in question. For instance: Phonetically: “καλός, καλί, καλίς, καλό..” = In Greek
spellingg (Orthography): καλώ, καλείς, καλεί... (With –ω, if
it is verb) καλό, καλή, καλής, ... (With – ο,η,
if it is adjective- neuter or feminine gender) καλώς (With –ως, if it is
adverb) & καλός (with –ος if it is
adjective - masculine) καλή (With –η, if it is
singular) & καλοί (with –οι, if it is plural) Similarly: “ίλι” = ύλη & ίλη & ήλοι & είλη, “ίδι” = είδη & ήδη & Ίδη, «λίπι» = λύπη & λείπει & λίπη, «φίλο» = φίλο & φύλο & φύλλο, «λίρα»= λίρα & λύρα, «κουτί» = κουτί & κουτοί & κουτή... The above examples show us that whenever there are
no homophone letters, we are not able to know the precise meaning of what we
write. Hence, because of the same sounding words we are not able to
distinguish the part of speech, whether a word is a noun or verb, masculine
or feminine, plural or singular. etcr. Rules in Greek Grammar/Orthography: A. Compound words are written according to their
component parts (in the simple words), in order to reveal their composition: σύν-θεση, παρά-μετρος,.... As in
English: under-stand... B. Derivative words are written according to their
root or to their original word, in order to reveal the root or the original
word: Κρήτ-η... (Root word) > κρητ-ικός, κρητ-ική... (derivative words, with the letter –η-) & κρίση, κριτ-ής... (root words) > κριτ-ικός, κριτ-ική... (derivative words, with the letter –ι-)... As in English: stand > standing, love >
lovely... G. Derivatives & compound words are written
according to their phonetic variations (phthong variations), in order to
reveal the correct pronunciation and the original words: ν + μ, ν, λ, ρ
= μμ,νν,λλ,ρρ: συν-μαθητής > συμμαθητής, παν-λαϊκός > παλλαϊκός),
συν-ράπτω > συρράπτω... π,β,φ + μ =
μμ: βλέπμα > βλέμμα (βλέπω-μα) , οπή > όπμα – όμμα ή μάτι, γράφμα
(γράφω-μα > – γράμμα, .... ν + κ,γ,χ =
γκ,γγ,γχ: συν-γενής > συγγενής, συν-καιρός > σύγκαιρος, συν-χαίρω >
συγχαίρω,... ,........................................ (For more
see below.) 4. Declinable words are written according to their
part of speech and type of word (= type = gender, singular or plural,
nominative or possessive or objective case, tense) to indicate: Masculine gender with –o,η: καλός, σοφός, Νίκος, Μανώλης... Neuter gender with –o, ι: καλό, σύκο, σοφό... τυρί, φιλί... The verb with
–ω, ει: καλώ, καλεί, καλείς, φοιτώ, αδικώ... Masculine plural: καλ-οί, κακ-οί Singular feminine with –η: καλή, καλής, νίκη, τιμή, ... ,............................. (For more see below.) Consequently, Greek spelling is phonetic as well as
simultaneously etymological. It is writingspelling exactly what we say
(pronounce) with the vowels and consonants (phthongs: o, a, t....) and
simultaneously what we mean etymologically, part of speech, type (= gender,
singular or plural, case or tense and derivation or composition of the word,
using accordingly and proportionally) the same sound letters O(ο) & Ω(ω) = [ο], Ε(ε) & ΑΙ(αι) = [ε], Η(η) & Υ(υ) & Ι(ι)... (For more see “homophone
letters”). phonetics: “kalό, sίko, άporo, άdhiko... & spelling with the Greek characters: καλ-ό, σύκ-ο, άπορ-ο, άδικ-ο,..., if we mean the neuter gender (the neuter gender is
written with the suffix letter –ο ) καλ-ώ, σήκ-ω, απορ-ώ, αδικ-ώ,..., if we
mean verbs (verbs are written with the suffix letter -ω). The Greek grammar is the most precise,
nearly perfect system in the world (The only writing system that records the
words as an electronic recorder does and beyond!) Writing
may be an ancient human invention, but those that more importantly went a
step beyond in perfecting it are the Greeks with the invention of a system
and methodology of writing that records the oral speech not only as the
recorder does, which may also be accomplished through other systems and
methodologies of writing, but they went beyond, etymologically, in order to
avoid any misapprehension with the sound-alike words. Specifically, in the
Greek system of writing are the following letters and special symbols, which
do not exist in any other system of writing, which also, depict the speech
not only phonetically, but also etymologically: 1) The capital letters: A, B, Γ … and small letters: α, β, γ… The
small letters: α, β, γ… are not for simplification, (“επισεσυρμένη γραφή”)
as it is called in Greek, but were devised in order to point out to the
reader that the word that begins with such letter does not signify a
principal noun, but a common noun, i.e.: νίκη & Νίκη, κριτικός & Κρητικός, αγαθή & Αγαθή… The
capital letters: Α, Β, Γ… are not the regular letters of the Greek alphabet,
as it is said, but sound-alike with the small letters, which were devised in
order to point out to the reader the sentences of a topic (in writing the
first letter of each sentence) and also to differentiate between the
principal and common nouns, i.e.: νίκη & Νίκη, κόκκινος & κ. Κόκκινος… 2) The orthographic symbols (= the
apostrophe, the accentual mark and the solvents) The
orthographic symbols are not for the purpose to indicate old prosody (the
musicality of the ancient Greek language), as it is said, but the specific
accented pronunciations during a speech, that is to say, the accented and
languid syllables, as well as pronunciation with contraction, vowel fusion,
etc., e.g.: σ’ όλα & σόλα, μία & μια, θεϊκός & θείος, έξοχη (adjective) & εξοχή (noun), σόλα (παπουτσιού) & σ’ όλα (έκθλιψη) = σε όλα, μία (two
syllables) & μια (one syllable with vowel
fusion), θεϊκός (ασυναίρετα, το εϊ = δυο φθόγγοι) & θείος (συνηρημένα, το ει = ένας φθόγγος)). Alike: ποίος & ποιος, πότε & ποτέ, σ’ όλα = σε όλα & σόλα, λίγα
από όλα & λίγ’ απ όλα… 3) The sound-alike letters: Ο(ο) & Ω(Ω), Ε(ε) & ΑΙ(αι), Η(η) & Υ(υ) & Ι(Ι)… The letters Η(η), Ω(ω), Υ(υ)… are
not letters that depict ancient diphthongs which today coincide with Ι, Ο, as it is falsely claimed by some, but
letters that resulted from distortion of scheme (form) of - I (I), O (o) -,
for the purpose of creating the sound-alike letters: Ο(ο) & Ω(ω), Η(η) & Υ(υ) & Ι(ι) & ΟΙ(οι)… with which, based upon rules, the etymology
becomes clear (conjugation, type, gender, singular, plural, etc.), hence the
precise meaning of words (writing for example the female gender with –η, the
neutral gender with – I, etc.), and thus we are helped in the comprehension
of words and in the differentiation of the sound-alike words, e.g.: κουτί & κουτή & κουτοί, λύρα & λίρα. Simpler
yet, with the sound-alike letters: Ο(ο)
& Ω(ω), Η(η) & Υ(υ) & Ι(ι)… we indicate in the
suffix the part of conjugation or the part of speech (grammatical type) that
the word reveals, writing for example: with –ο,η,ι -
the singular case of the nouns and adjectives: καλό, καλή, νίκη, τιμή, σύκο, φιλί,…, with
–ω,ει- the present tense of the
verbs: καλώ, γελώ, τρέχω, σήκω, καλεί,….
(similarly the remainder parts of speech, numbers, etc.), and the subject or the root or the original
word of a derivative, e.g.: κρίνω, κριτής > κριτικός (with –ι) & Κρήτη > Κρητικός (with -η)…συν-μαθητής > συμμαθητής (with two -μμ) & έμεινα (with one -μ)… , so that the
reader is helped in the comprehension of words and the differentiation or
distinction of the sound-alike words. As
we see from the above examples with the help of the sound-alike letters: Ο(ο) & Ω(Ω), Ε(ε) & ΑΙ(αι), Η(η) & Υ(υ) & Ι(Ι)… ,
but also the orthographic symbols we are quickly able to distinguish the
sound-alike words or we understand whether we are talking about a verb or a noun or adjective, etc., or the
genders male, or neuter, or principal, or common name etc. Consequently the
letters -Ω,
-Η,
-Υ-
are not leftover ancient diphthongs, as it is claimed by some, but
sound-alike letters, for the afore mentioned reasons. Therefore: 1) The
Greeks, with the invention of capital and small letters, as well as orthographic
symbols and sound-alike letters, if we pay close attention, we will see that
they write (spell) particularly easily not only as the electronic recorder
does, but also beyond that. With the recorder there can be misapprehension
because of the sound-alike words, while with the Greek alphabet’s writing
misapprehension is impossible, because
with the Greek spelling we record not only what we say with the two-character
letters (phthongs) but also what we mean etymologically (part of speech,
type, verb, noun, etc.), with the help of the sound-alike, the capital and
small letters. For example: Αγαθή & αγαθή & αγαθοί, σε όλα & σόλα & σ’ όλα, ποία
& ποια & πια, κουτί & κουτοί & κουτή, κλίση & κλήση &
κλείσει& κλίσει…. 2) Because
the Greek system of writing records the words as such, precisely as heard and
simultaneously depending on their etymology at the moment when we write,
going back to the ancient Greek written texts we can see how exactly the
Greek words were in each period of evolution of the Greek language. That is
something that can not be done in any other language’s writings, because the
other language writings record the words historically (writings with Latin
characters: English, French, and others), others ideographically (Chinese,
Japanese, and others) and others consonantly (Arabic, Persian, and others). 3) If the
Greeks had discovered in spelling only the letters of vowels, as it is claimed by some, it would not be significant (it
would only be something simpler), since instead of them in writings that do
not have vowels there are indicative symbols that are added, if it is
required on or under the consonants that would have vowels for clarification.
The significant thing in the history of writing is also the invention of the
sound-alike letters (ο & ω, η & ι & ι…) and the invention of
orthographic symbols (accentual mark, apostrophe, solvents) and also the invention
of defined rules of spelling (orthographic). Clearly, the rules by which in
writing the orthographic symbols and the sound-alike letters in words (= to
write for example the female gender with –η, the neuter with –ι,ο, the
verbs with –ω,ει…) it is very important, because, if these were
created by chance, then Greek writing would be very difficult and
time-consuming to learn it. 4) In all
the languages of the world there are sound-alike words, accented and languid
syllables, pronunciation with contraction,
vowel fusion, etc. However in the writings of other populations
(Indian, etc.) these are not indicated, since there are neither orthographic
symbols (accentual mark, apostrophe, etc.) nor sound-alike letters (=: Ω (ω) &
Ο (ο), Η( η) &
Υ(υ) & Ι (ι)…) nor capital and small
letters, with which these would be indicated. In Latin and the current
writings with Latin characters (English, French, etc.) there are only the
capital and small letters. Consequently all of the other language writings
are, more or less, inferior in precision and expression to the Greek
language. 5) Other
the diphthongs: οϋ, αϊ, εϊ, οϊ, υϊ = two
letters (phthongs), and else the two-character letters: ου, αι, ει, οι, υι = one
letter. In
writing the diphthongs are distinguished from the two-character letters by
the solvents and accentual mark: άι = αϊ, αί = ε. 6) In observing the Greek
writing, ancient and modern, we see that the letters are simple and constant
in scheme, hence easy to script (draw) and distinct in their reading; and,
the words are written with as many different letters as there are different
two-character letters in the words, consonants and vowels, which provides the
capability of writing any word or any sound, e.g.: ε, α, αέρας, εε, εαα… this capability does not
exist in other languages. For example, the letters in the Egyptian language
are images of beings and as such there is a need for some form of figurative
talent for drawing. In the cuneiform and linear writing the letters have
complex schemes which requires a lot of time for familiarization and
learning, and also some figurative talent for drawing. In the Indian and
Arabic language alphabets the letters are attached to each other, while also
they do not have a constant scheme, thus it requires some figurative talent
and a lot of time of familiarization and learning. 7) From
the sound-alike letters Ο(ο) & Ω(ω), Ε(ε) & ΑΙ(αι), Η(η) & Υ(υ) & Ι(ι) & ΟΙ(οι)…. that have been devised
in the Greek alphabet and writing for the reasons afore mentioned, Ω(ω), Η(η) – it is the invention of the Ions and for this reason, obviously,
these letters are called Ionic by
the other Greeks according to historian Herodotus. 8) Nevertheless,
In the Greek alphabet system of writing there is still a need for some small
improvements, such as: The two-character letter – OY - (ou) to be written
with a single character and be simplified; to reduce the orthographic rules,
but with research and study and not at random, in order that writing-spelling
to become even easier. Not, for example: οδεύω, κλαδεύω, παύω…, but οδέβω, κλαδέβω, πάβω…
Similarly: βράδι (instead βράδυ), μπράντι (instead μπράντυ), (to be written with – ι – just as the other
neuter nouns in - ι: τυρί, ψωμί, παιδί... The Greek system of writing is not only the most precise and perfect, but also the easiest in the world, since it can be learned in 30 minutes! The Greek system of
writing, apart from being the most precise and perfect in the world, as we
have seen above, it is the easiest, since the time required to learn it
corresponds to the time required in order to learn: a) the alphabet, that is
to say the equivalence to the 20 two-character letters (Gk. phthongs): α ε ο u ι κ γ χ τ δ θ π β φ μ ν λ ρ σ ζ with their corresponding letters, e.g.: Α(α) = [α], ΑΙ(αι) = Ε(ε) = [ε], Ο(ο) = Ω(ω) = [ο], ΟΥ(ου) = [u]... which does not need more than 10 - 20
minutes b) The rules which are
used in the writing of words that require the sound-alike letters: ω & ο, ε & αι, μμ & μ...., as those, of: The verbs
with -ω, ει: καλ-ώ είς, εί, σήκ-ω…The feminine gender with
-η: καλή,ής, νίκη, τιμή... The neuter gender with ο/ι: καλ-ό, κακό, φυτό... τυρί, ψωμί…., which
does not require more than 20 - 30 minutes.. Unless it is learning
required for small children or foreigners, who do not know the language,
thereby the difficulty is attributed to having to learn the language and not
the system of writing, or for teaching optical or empirical of the grammatical
type, e.g.: "καλή μάνα" with -η, while
"καλοί άνθρωποι"
with -οι,
"καλό πράγμα"
with -ο,
while "καλώ τον Άρη" with -ω, "καλός άνθρωπος" with -ο,
while "καλώς τον Άρη"
with -ω,.... Hence time-consuming
learning which is only then is achieved, when the student understands that
the writing is dependent upon which part of speech, type and derivation or
composition the word is and not with what is stated in the school’s grammar: καλ-ή, with -η, if it is the feminine gender, as all other:
νίκη, τιμή.... , καλ-εί, with ει, if it is a verb, as all other: θέλει, λέγει… καλ-ό, with -ο, if it is an adjective , as all other: κακό, σοφό,… καλ-ώ, with -ω, if it is a verb , as all other: λέγω, τιμώ.... Most
important observations: 1)
The Greek system of writing (spelling) is the easiest in the world, however
only if it is taught properly, that is to say teaching the student the
alphabet and the defined rules, otherwise it appears like a labyrinth or
Chinese writing. And this, because many people, as soon as they see that in
the Greek system of writing there are many letters, which even though are
different in scheme (shape), they are pronounced the same, immediately they
feel lost (swamped) with the thought that it is not possible that they can
remember which word is written with what letter and which with another letter
etc., and thus abandon their effort to learn it. However, this is a
superficial and consequently erroneous evaluation. Certainly the Greek
alphabet (writing) has several sound-alike letters: ο & ω, ε & αι, υ & η & ι... and thus it appears difficult and
time-consuming to learn it. How can I remember, one would say, which word is
written for example with - ω – and which with – o --, which word with – αι – and
which with – ε – etc. Moreover, this is for the uninitiated, for those who see superficially
the Greek spelling system, since these sound-alike letters are not inserted
in the words incidentally or historically, as it is with the orthography of
words in writings with Latin characters, but with a few specifically defined
rules, as the following: The verbs with -ω,ει,: σήκω, φοιτώ, καλώ, καλεί, καλείς,.... ,
The neuter nouns with –ο,ι: σύκο, φυτό, καλό, φύλο,… φύλλο, φιλί, ...,
the feminine nouns with –η: καλή, καλής,.. etc.
Therefore, if we remember these rules Greek spelling becomes very easy. 2) In the past Greek spelling was much more difficult, because you had
to also remember the orthographic rules for special symbols and accentual
marks or to memorize one-by-one the correct spelling (with the proportional
special symbols and accentual marks). Today, with the modifications applied
by the popular academic linguists, Greek spelling became extremely easy. 3) In Greek and Latin writing, because the letters have one single
pronunciation, and even though incorrectly you might write the words, again
you correctly pronounce the word and will be understood by another person,
for example whether you write “αφτι ίνε κακί σίντροφι” or “αυτύ ήναι κακή σύντροφει” or “αυτοί είναι κακοί σύντροφοι” etc., you are pronouncing the word correctly and
the meaning also comes out and is understood correctly. The only circumstance in which the meaning is lost is if we utter a
single word, which also happens to be a sound-alike word (this is something
seen in dictionaries, inscriptions and signs), because then even though the
pronunciation of the word is correct, the meaning is lost because it is a
sound-alike word, e.g.: “αφτί” = αφτί ή αυτί & αυτοί & αυτή. Contrarily, in current day spelling with
Latin characters, because of historical spelling, if we do not write
orthographically correct the words (according to their established spelling),
the meaning is unintelligible, because each written word is like an image
that is attributable to a specific accent and meaning, therefore if you
diminish the image, it appears unrecognizable. For example, in English the
words: to & too & two, while their letters do not depict their
correct pronunciation, if we remove or change any of their letters, then
these words loose their meaning. This is
also the reason that: a) In the Greek
language if we even utter a single word, we become absolutely comprehensible
or explicitly clear, for example: αγαπ-ώ, αγάπ-η, αγαπ-άς, αγαπ-ά... b) In the other
languages, in order to become comprehensible or absolutely and explicitly
clear, we must speak with complete sentences of the syntactical type: Υ + Ρ + Α or Κ, where Υ = subject, Ρ = verb, Α =
object, Κ = predicate: I love you. He loves me. Mary loves books. The
love is good thing. C. Comparing Greek writing (alphabet and spelling) with the rest of The falsehood in regard
to the difficulty of the historic Greek
system of writing (alphabet and orthography) According to certain writers, the Greek
alphabet and the Greek spelling should be replaced with the Latin alphabet
and Latin spelling, because in Greek spelling there are duplicate letters that
are phonetically similar, i.e.: ο & ω, ε & αι….which
makes it very difficult to remember which word is spelled, e.g. with
–o- and which with –ω-, which with –e- and
which with –ai-. Also
according to certain writers, the various training and learning issues (dyslexia,
illiteracy, etc.) are due to the difficulty in learning what is required by
the current alphabets (= Greek and those with Latin characters: English,
French, Dutch, and others), because of the etymology or historical spelling
and thus they propose their elimination (abolishment), and replacement with a
new alphabet which should have only so many letters as there are vocal
sounds. For
the Greek alphabet, they say, that there are the sound-alike letters: o and ω,
ε & αι….which make it difficult
to remember which word is spelled, e.g. with –o- and which with –ω-
, which with –e- and which with -ai-… For
Latin based alphabets, they say, that words while pronounced the same are
spelled differently, e.g., the English word pronounced “aintia” is spelled
idea, while this spelling displays the pronunciation “intea” which thus
results in not pointing out the correct pronunciation and requires the
student to memorize the spelling for each word, consequently that is
something which is very difficult, etc. However
the above-mentioned options contain the following errors: 1)
If we only spell the words according to the vocal sounds, that is to say
without the sound-alike characters ω, η, υ…,
we will not be able to distinguish the sound-alike words in the dictionaries,
signs, etc., and in the not syntactically perfect documents, e.g: «κλίσι» = κλήση & κλίση, «αφτί» = αυτοί & αυτή & αυτί..
2) Greek
spelling is not historical (see also the book “Untruths about the Greek
language and spelling”, A. Krasanakis), but only the spelling in languages
with Latin characters (English, French, Dutch, and others), hence these are
difficult to learn and should be abolished, e.g., Greek: idea, Europe, titan…
= English: idea, In
Greek writing, words are spelled with particularly great ease, that is, precisely
as they are pronounced and at the same time depending upon their etymology
and using defined rules to determine the sound-alike letters: ο & ω, η & ι & υ…so
that we may be helped in their understanding (finding the etymology) and the
differentiation (distinction) of the sound-alike characters, e.g: καλώ & καλό, καλοί & καλεί & καλοί… THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS: ENGLISH, FRENCH, ETC… Observing
the current writings with Latin characters (English, French, etc…) we see
that some words are written as having vocal sound-alike Latin characters, and
the remainder, as follows: 1) The words that derive
from Greek and Latin are written as if they are optical images, irrelevant if
they may be pronounced somewhat differently. i.e: Greek: πρόβλημα, τιτάν(ας), Γεωργία,
Ευρώπη, ιδέα, τυπώ(νω), Ολυμπία, φιλοσοφία, τηλέφωνο...... & English: problem (“πρόμπλεμ»), titan(«ταϊταν»), Europe («γιούροπ»), idea («αϊντία»), type («τάϊπ»), Olympia, philosophy, telephone... Greek: ακ(τ)ίς, Γεωργιανός, Συριανός,
Λατίνος... & French: action (“axis”), Georgien (“[zeorzan]”), Syrien (“[sirian]”), Latin (“[latan]”)… Latin cluba (κλούμπα -κλούβα), cupa (κούπα), & English club («κλάμπ»), cup («κάπ»), America, plus («πλας»), imperial («ιμπίριαλ»), line («λάϊν»), double ("ντάμπλ")…. 2) A word that sounds like
another word adds an additional letter (accidental or according to the
thought of whoever established it graphically) and which, even though it is
written as such, it is not pronounced as such, i.e., the English word John
(pronounced “tzon”), which adds the letter h, because in Hebrew there is the vocal sound – h--: Ioannis = Iochanan. French:
grave (in the singular) &graves (in plural). Here - es is not pronounced,
but is added for the differentiation of the plural case rom the vocal sound
of the singular case. English: to & t(w)o &
to(o), rit(e) & (w)rit(e) & ri(g)t(h).. Here: w, o, w, e, g, h - are not
pronounced, but were added for the differentiation of the sound-alike words. Similarly:
sent & cent & scent, pare & pair & pear, boy & buoy, no & know, sail & sale, grown &
groan, fought & fort, war &
wore, side & sighed, made
& maid, night & knight, soared &
surd, hole & whole, morning & mourning ..... 3) Derivative
words are written in the subject topic similarly with their original, that is
to say, they maintain their historical spelling, irrelevantly if at times the
pronunciation of the derivative word changes because of vocal sound causes
(contraction, etc.), e.g., in English the original word volcano (pronounced
(“volkeinoun”, a = ei) and the derivative volcanic (pronounced “volcanic”, a
= a). Similarly: athlete (“άθλιτ”) > athletic (“αθλέτικ”), busy (“μπάζι») > business (“μπίζνες»), day (“ντέι”) > Sanday (“σάντι”), live («λάϊβ») >living ("λίβινκ")… It is noted that: 1)
The writing (spelling) of a word as described above remains in the same tense
even if its pronunciation changes or if the word has two or more different
pronunciations, e.g., in French & English while some say, e.g: "de
lanton, mpati, son koner, oyat… ", and others say " di lonton
mponti, sin koneri, choyat or goyat. " , hence, they are all spelled
exactly the same, that is to say: 2)
In writing and spelling a word can be pronounced one way in a given language
and differently in another, e.g., the words: BEAUTE = in English pronounced
“mpioyti” and in French “mpote”. 3)
With the Greek or Latin orthography there are also spelled the words of other
languages (arabic, Jewish, etc.) by way of Greek or Latin, i.e: Greek: algebra,
Emmanouil, Daniel…. = English: Algebra, Emmanuel, Daniel…. 4)
For all of the above reasons writing using the Latin characters: (1)
There is disharmony between spelling and pronunciation. Another words - we
pronounce something else than what we write or we see something but pronounce
something else. This is the phenomenon whereby for the same letter we have
five, six, etc. pronunciations and even to depict syllables and not just one
as in Greek and Latin. For example in English, the English words go, one, on,
come, to…, where the letter O is pronounced sometimes OOY, other times OYA,
A, OY… Similarly with the words: was (goyoz), In
many English words the letters have the same pronunciation as their corresponding
Latin, e.g.: Athens (athens), Italy (itali), and in most others the same
letters (characters) are impossible to precisely tell how they are pronounced
or it is known and understood only if one knows the pronunciation of the
entire word. (2)
“Spelling" is the creation for each word of a specific "optical
image", which for those who know about writing it constitutes one’s
"imagination of an image" in the spelling of each word. This
imagined picture is appended in the mind of the writer to the acoustic
picture, that is to say, the pronouncement of a given word, as well as to its
meaning. (3)
The time required to learn the spelling of words is as much as it is needed
by the student to learn one-by-one the spelling of all words, consequently
very difficult and time-consuming. Naturally to spell the words as such in
another written language, as done, e.g. in English (where most of the words
are written as optical images from Latin and Greek) it is much more difficult
than to write the words with the Greek vocal sound-alike letters: Ω & Ο, Η & Υ & Ι … whereby, based on defined rules one has to
only remember few rules and not one-by-one the spelling of each word. (4)
There is no capability for recording, but also for indicating any pronunciation
of a word. In order to indicate the correct pronunciation of words with Latin
characters in the various dictionaries – in parallel, are utilized the so
called phonetic symbols. That is to say, here we have a type of writing as
auxiliary to another writing!! These
are also the reason that many writers, such as (Saussure, and others) seek
the abolishment in writing with Latin characters and the establishment of
some other alphabet, which would have as many letters as there are vocal
sound-alikes. This is however erroneous, because in this type of spelling it
is not possible to distinguish the sound-alike words The
singular and best solution to this issue is the establishment of Greek writing
(spelling) internationally. THE PHONETICS AND THE INTERNATIONAL
SYSTEM OF WRITING (ALPHABET & SPELLING) Simply,
in Latin spelling there are no orthographic special characters, such as
(accentual mark, apostrophe, etc.) and the sound-alike letters: Ω Η, ΕΙ, ΥΙ… that is because the Latinos copied the Greek
alphabet before they could foresee them – and that is the reason for which
Latin is easy to spell, however inferior in capability and precision than
Greek. In this alphabet there are no letters for the sound-alike δ, γ, θ,
characters, because these characters were not being used much in the Latin
language. 2. The
current languages with Latin characters, such as today’s international
language ‘English’, are etymological (historical) and consequently: a) They
are difficult to learn, b) They
cannot credibly record the oral speech, c) in
order to indicate the precise pronunciation of a word they use the so called
“PHONETICS SYMBOLS”. However,
these symbols are too many (about 40, and that is attributed to lack of comprehending
as yet the value of orthographic special characters (solvents, accentual mark
and apostrophe), hence they are difficult to learn and thus the easier and
simpler solution is the utilization of the Greek alphabet, for the following
reasons: A)
With only the 20 letters of the Greek alphabet: α, ε, ο, ι, ου = u, τ, δ, θ, π, β, φ, κ, γ, χ, μ, ν, λ, ρ, σ, ζ - We indicate precisely the pronunciation
(sound-alike characters) of the words, e.g.: “καλό, ψιλί = good, psili”. This is also the reason that many
non-Greek (foreign) dictionaries indicate the pronunciation of English and
other words with Greek characters and the orthographic special characters
(accentual mark, solvents, etc.) and not with phonetics, writing for example
corrosive (pronounced: korooyzib”…), body (mponti), dog (ntogk)… B)
With the capital and small letters: Α(α),
Β(β), Γ(γ)…, as well as with the sound-alike letters: Ο(ο) & Ω(ω), Η(η) & Ι(ι) & Υ(υ)…, based upon rules (writing for example, the female gender with –η, the neutral gender with –ο,ι, the verbs with – ω,ει.,etc.), we indicate and record also the
precise pronunciation and etymology (conjugation, type, etc.) of the words,
thus we are helped in the understanding and differentiation of the sound-alike
characters, e.g.: καλό & καλώ, αγαθή & Αγαθή & αγαθοί, ψιλή & ψιλοί & ψηλοί & ψηλή… Thus,
for example the pronunciation of the English sound-alike word “wrait” (=
write, right, rite) in Greek each one would be spelled either with a
different sound-alike character, e.g. “ράϊτ, ράητ, ράϋτ” or with a different accentual mark for each
occasion and not with the addition of an accidental letter or historical,
that is to say (w) rite & ri (gh) t & rite…. as in English. C)
With the orthographic special characters (accentual mark, apostrophe, etc.)
we indicate the accented and unaccented syllables, the pronunciation without
exceptions, vowel fusion, etc., e.g.: “σ’ όλα & σε όλα & σόλα, κάλος & καλός & καλώς, καλώ, μία & μια, θείος & θεϊκός”… Consequently the Greek
system of writing is the one and only that deserves to become international
and the official protocol of the European Union. Of
course, because the Greek alphabet and spelling are very easy and precise,
its globalization will not only quickly decrease world illiteracy, but will
also advance the “Letters, and Arts & Sciences” and thus the world
culture. |
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BIBLIOGRAPHY The present
book is an original study about the Greek language and not a copy of other
works except that section concerning the inclination of the words which is
according to the Grammar by M. Triantaphillidis (according to Greek Govern,
the instructions by the Ministry of Education). This work is a continuation
of: 1.
Greek writing system, by A. KRASSANAKIS 2.
Greek language, by A. KRASSANAKIS 3.
Syntax of Greek Language, by A.
KRASSANAKIS 4.
Scripts of world, by A. KRASSANAKIS 5.
Scientific linguistics, by A. KRASSANAKIS 6.
Falsies and Disgraces for Greek Language
and Greek Writing, by A. KRASSANAKIS |
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CONTENTS CHAPTER 1st: THE ELEMENTS OF
WORDS ……………………………………….……….. 2 1. The language and the word 2. The elements of words 3. Phthongs (= the sounds of words) & syllables CHAPTER 2nd: PARTS OF SPEECH
……………………………………………………………. 6 1. Significance and types of parts of speech 2. Declinable parts of speech CHAPTER 3rd: HISTORY OF GREEK
LANGUAGE …………………………………………… 8 1. History of Greek Language 2. Periods of Greek Language CHAPTER 4th: DIFFERENCES
between Greek - other languages …………………... 14 1. Characteristics & principles of the Greek language 2. The wealth, the Greek Language is one of the richest and
most CHAPTER 5th: EDUCATIONAL
……………………………………………………….…….. 19 1. Difficulties of learning the Greek Language. 2. How to speak correct New Greek CHAPTER 6th: FALSIES FOR GREEK
LANGUAGE ………………………………………. 30 1. The false of different ancient Greek
language and the false of Greek historical script 2. The false of maternal Indo - German or Indo-European Language CHAPTER 7th: ENGLISH AND GREEK
LANGUAGE ………………………………………. 37 BIBLIOGRAPHY – CONTENTS ……....…………..………………………………………
35 |