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GREEK
WRITING SYSTEM Research - study By A. KRASSANAKIS Translation in English By |
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- Greek
writing is the most easiest and perfect in the world. - It
writes not only like a microphone, but more better! - It
can be learned in 30 minutes! |
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ΑΤΗΕΝΣ 2009 SBN 960 – 85089 – 2 - 4 |
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CHAPTER 1st
ALPHABET,
TECHIC AND MARKS OF GREEK
WRITING |
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1. The methodology (techic) of the Greek
Writing System You hear
the consonant phthong [m] and write the letter M(μ). similarly, you
see the letter M (μ) and
you write the consonant phthong [m]. You
hear or pronounce the word “μάνα” (=
mother), which consists of the phthongs (sounds, homophones) “μ-α-ν-α” (= m,a,n,a),
and then you write the letters “μάνα” (= m,a,n,a). You see the letters of the word «μάνα» and pronounce
the phthongs (sounds, homophones) “μ/ά/ν/α (m/a/n/a)”. In
other words, the word «μάνα» is
written this way, because the consonant (phthong) [μ] has been
grammatically defined to be written with the letter Μ(μ), the phthong [α] with the letter
A(α)....etc. Consequently, the word “μάνα” is being read
this way, because the designated letter M (μ) produces the phthong [μ] etc. English:
“I am tailor” = In
Greek it is pronounced and written: «άϊ αμ τέϊλορ» =
using Greek words: Εγώ είμαι ράφτης. The
orthographic rules are as follows: The
suffix (last syllable) of verbs is written with –ω: σήκω, καλώ, φοιτώ, λέγω... The
suffix of adverbs is written with –ω(ς): καλώς, κακώς... παρακάτω, άνω, κάτω… The
suffix (last syllable) of nouns and adjectives feminine gender is written
with –η: Καλή, κακή, Νίκη, νίκη... The
suffix of nouns and adjectives masculine gender with –οs: Καλός, κακός, Νίκος... The
suffix of nouns and adjectives neuter gender with –ο,ι: σύκο, κακό, ελαφρό... τυρί, φιλί... Phonetic
(oral speech):
“kalό, sίko, άporo, άdhiko..... & sp καλ-ό, σύκ-ο, άπορ-ο, άδικ-ο,...(the
suffix of the neuter gender is
written with the –ο ) & καλ-ώ, σήκ-ω, απορ-ώ, αδικ-ώ,...(the suffix of the verbs is written
with the letter -ω) In
Greek writing, if you see a written word with the letter –ω (as a suffix,
last syllable), it signifies that this word is a verb: καλ-ώ, -είς.., with the
letter -o it signifies that this word is a neuter noun or adjective: καλ-ό, σύκο.., with the
letter -η it
signifies that this word is a feminine noun or adjective: καλ-ή, καλ-ής..... etc. In
examining the letters in words we notice that many of them are homophones
(similar voice, same sound letters) caused by either phonological variation
or their changes or inflection through the passage of time (because of the
homophonic suffixes): καλ(έ)-ω > καλώ, καλ(έ)-εις > καλείς, καλ(έ)-ει > καλεί... (=
verb,
ρήμα) & καλός, καλή, καλό (= adjective, επίθετο ) & καλός > καλοί (plural)... Moreover,
in further examining these same sounding letters in words, we notice that
these words don’t belong to the same part of speech or gender or type of
words. In
addition, the Greek sp Phonetically:
“καλός, καλί, καλίς, καλό..” = In Greek sp καλώ, καλείς, καλεί...
(With –ω, if it
is verb) καλό, καλή, καλής, ...
(With – ο,η, if
it is adjective- neuter or feminine gender) καλώς (With –ως, if it is adverb) & καλός (with –ος
if it is adjective - masculine) καλή (With –η, if it is singular) &
καλοί (with –οι,
if it is plural) Similarly: “ίλι” = ύλη & ίλη & ήλοι & είλη, “ίδι” = είδη & ήδη & Ίδη, «λίπι» = λύπη & λείπει & λίπη, «φίλο» = φίλο & φύλο & φύλλο, «λίρα»= λίρα & λύρα, «κουτί» = κουτί & κουτοί & κουτή... The
above examples show us that whenever there are no homophone letters, we are
not able to know the precise meaning of what we write. Hence, because of the
same sounding words we are not able to distinguish the part of speech,
whether a word is a noun or verb, masculine or feminine, plural or singular.
etcr. Rules
in Greek Grammar/Orthography: A.
Compound words are written according to their component parts (in the simple
words), in order to reveal their composition: σύν-θεση, παρά-μετρος,.... As in
English: under-stand... B.
Derivative words are written according to their root or to their original
word, in order to reveal the root or the original word: Κρήτ-η... (Root word)
> κρητ-ικός, κρητ-ική... (derivative
words, with the letter –η-)
& κρίση, κριτ-ής... (root words)
> κριτ-ικός, κριτ-ική... (derivative
words, with the letter –ι-)...
As in English: stand > standing, love > lovely... G.
Derivatives & compound words are written according to their phonetic
variations (phthong variations), in order to reveal the correct pronunciation
and the original words: ν + μ, ν, λ, ρ = μμ,νν,λλ,ρρ: συν-μαθητής
> συμμαθητής, παν-λαϊκός > παλλαϊκός), συν-ράπτω > συρράπτω... π,β,φ + μ = μμ: βλέπμα > βλέμμα
(βλέπω-μα) , οπή > όπμα – όμμα ή μάτι, γράφμα (γράφω-μα > – γράμμα, .... ν + κ,γ,χ = γκ,γγ,γχ: συν-γενής >
συγγενής, συν-καιρός > σύγκαιρος, συν-χαίρω > συγχαίρω,... ,........................................
(For more see below.) 4.
Declinable words are written according to their part of speech and type of
word (= type = gender, singular or plural, nominative or possessive or
objective case, tense) to indicate: Masculine
gender with –o,η: καλός, σοφός, Νίκος, Μανώλης... Neuter
gender with –o, ι: καλό, σύκο, σοφό... τυρί, φιλί... The verb with –ω, ει: καλώ, καλεί,
καλείς, φοιτώ, αδικώ... Masculine
plural: καλ-οί, κακ-οί Singular feminine with
–η: καλή, καλής, νίκη, τιμή, ...
,............................. (For more see below.) Consequently,
Greek sp phonetics:
“kalό, sίko, άporo, άdhiko... &
sp καλ-ό, σύκ-ο, άπορ-ο, άδικ-ο,..., if we
mean the neuter gender (the neuter gender is written with the suffix letter –ο ) καλ-ώ, σήκ-ω, απορ-ώ, αδικ-ώ,..., if we mean
verbs (verbs are written with the suffix letter -ω). 2. The Greek alphabet Alphabet
is the name given those letters (characters): A(α), B(β)... by which the
phthongs (sounds of words) are represented in Greek writing. The following 24
capital and small letters and in the following order and naming (model
words): The Greek alphabet
In Greek alphabet: 1) The
word <<alphabet>> consist of the Greek
alphabetical (models) words: άλφα + βήτα. 2) The
form of the Greek letters: A(α), B(β),... shows us the position of the mouth, lips
etc, i.e. the form B(β)
indicates close lips with full of air, the form O(o) shows us mouth, tongue,
larynx like a pipe, the form Λ(λ) = tongue up and
introvert etc.(For more see in Greek section.) 3) The
whole word of models words “άλφα, βήτα”... declares the pattern of writing form or
pronunciation of its letter (To day, due to all those linguistic changes and
practical improvement of the original alphabet, this does not precisely). The Greek word «σίγμα» mean pronounce
like [s…]. The Greek word «λάμδα» mean form
(shape) like “nipper, pinchers”), etc
(See more in Greek Section). Something that not occur in writing with
Latin characters (English, French... ).. 4) The
letter sigma Σ(s,σ) have two forms.
When written at the end of a word, it is written like this:Σ(ς). If it occurs
anywhere else, it is written like this: Σ(σ). στύλος = ΣΤΥΛΟΣ, pronunciation
“stilos”. When sigma is a capital letter it is always "Σ." When it
is a small letter and is the last letter of the word, then it is "ς" otherwise
it is "σ"
5)
There are not long and sort (small) vowel letters as it happens in Arabic,
Indian etc writings. 6) The
Greek letters consonants Ξ(ξ), Ψ(ψ) = Latin X(x),
PS(ps) are abbreviation. They are called “double”, because they virtually
represent the consonant combination KS and PS respectively. These are like
X(x) in latin In Greek writing system: 1) The letter Y(υ) pronounced
some times as i as in "in" and some times as v or f (for more see
later). 2) We write all the
phthongs with each letter of them. When
we see-read a written word we pronounced separately and clearly all the
letters and as show us the Greek model (alphabet) words: άλφα, βήτα, γάμα…, i.e.: καλό = k(apa) + a(lfa) + l(amdha) + ό(micro). Greek word Πατέρας: We have the phthongs and letters Π,α,τ,ε,ρ,α,ς. Put the sounds together syllable by syllable: Π and α = Πα
- sounds pa + τ and ε
= τε - sounds te + ρ and α and ς = ρας - sounds ras All together it is "pateras" which means,
"Father". Greek word Ουρανός: We have the phthongs and letters ου,ρ,α,ν,ο,ς. Put the sounds together syllable by syllable: ου = two-digits letter for sounds
u as in put, Lou, ρ and a = ρα - sounds ra ν and ο and ς = νος - sounds nos All together it is "(o)uranos" which means "sky" In
the Greek writing system, ancient and modern: 1) The first sound character (Gk.phthong)
of the Greek alphabetic words ά-λφα, β-ήτα... reveals which letter this sound
character (Gk. Phthong) represents, i.e.: λ-άνδα (“landha”) = the sound character (phthong) [λ] = [l].
This is something that does not occur in
writing with Latin characters in (English, French... ). See for example the letter A (a) of the
English alphabet. It is pronounced here as e+i and in the words: 2) In Greek there are the homophone letters, e.g.: O & Ω, Η
& Υ & Ι…. This is something that does not exist in any other
language. 3) In Greek all letters represent only
one sound character (phthong) and it is the same throughout the process of
writing. Even if a word is spelled orthographically incorrect, it still is
pronounced correctly, i.e: Greek: «Αύριο θα πάμε εκδρομή στην Αθήνα». Here the letter A(a) is always pronounced
as [α] and not [ε] or [o]..., as it happens in English). Greek incorrect sp
Correct sp This is something that does not occur in
the English, French, German and others in their sp 4) In Greek there are letters for all
sound characters (phthongs). That is for all the consonants and for all
vowels, (see the letters of the Greek sp This is something that does not occur in
English or French, German, etc. sp 5) Some homophone sound characters (phthongs) consist
of a single letter, while others consist of more than one, i.e.: O & Ω, Y & H & I, AI & ai… These homophone
letters are used to distinguish and differentiate the type of word, as for
examples: λίρα & λύρα, καλό & καλώ.. For more information see the homophone letters. In this situation, in English sp 6) In Greek, all sp Greek sp Pronunciation: Simera ine kiriaki ke emis
then ehume sxolio. Meaning: Today is Sunday and we don’t
have school. This is something that does not occur in
English or French, German... written word.
For example, in the English words: go, come, one, more, to... where
the letter O(o) is pronounced sometimes “o” and sometimes “u” or “a” or
“ou”,... 7) In English the sound letter (phthong)
U(u) is written with the two digit letter OY(oυ) = U(u). 8) The letter H(h) is pronounced "h,
ch, wh" as in "Bach, home, who”… Similarly "ch" in
"chair, Christ” 9) The Greek letters: B(β), Γ(γ),
Δ(δ) are different from the Latin Β(b), D(d), G(g) = MP(mp) NT(nt) NC(nc). The Latin letters
B(b), D(d), G(g) are abbreviations of the Greek MP(μπ), NT(ντ), ΓK(γκ). In Latin sp 10)
The Greek letter sigma Σ(s,σ) has two
distinct shapes. When written at the end of a word, it is written like this:Σ(ς). If it occurs
anywhere else within a word, it is written like this: Σ(σ). στύλος = ΣΤΥΛΟΣ, pronounced
“stilos”. Whe 11)
The Greek letter Y(υ) is pronounced some times as i as in
"in" and some times as v or f (for more on this see below). 12) In
Greek sp In the Greek word Πατέρας: We have the phthongs and letters Π,α,τ,ε,ρ,α,ς. Put the sounds together syllable by syllable: Π and α = Πα
- sounds pa + τ and ε
= τε - sounds te + ρ and α and ς = ρας - sounds ras All together it is "pateras", which means
"Father". In the Greek word Ουρανός: We have the phthongs and letters ου,ρ,α,ν,ο,ς. Put the sounds together syllable by syllable: ου = two-character sound letter = u
as in put, Lou, ρ and a = ρα - sounds ra ν and ο and ς = νος - sounds nos All together it is "(o)uranos", which means "sky" 3. Diference among Greek and writing with
latin charactrers (English, German, Holand etc writing) 1. Greek writing is
made with system, something that not occur in writing with Latin characters
(English, French...), because here we have historical writing, as we see
later. In
Greek writing system in one hand we have the phthongs (sound) of words) and
in other hand we have Letters (one or more for each phthong) and rules for
use the homophones letters. The Greek letters: O(o) = Ω(ω), Ι(ι) =Υ(υ) = Η(η) = ΕΙ(ει) = ΟΙ(οι) = ΥΙ(υι), E(ε) = AI(αι) are homophone
letters and used in Greek writing according to rules (according to part
of speech, the gender, the number and the case of the words) in order to
facilitate (suggest) the etymology of the written words or to distinguishing
homophone words. e.g.: καλός &
καλώς, καλή & καλεί & καλοί... (More
see later) 2. The Latin
writing (the writing of ancient Greek: μαθηματικά, συλλαβή, Γραικία, Φοινίκη… Latin:
mathematica, Syllaba, In
Latin writing there are not the letters homophone letters H, Ω, the letters Θ, Δ, Γ (= as in thing, as in that as in yet), the
accent marc (‘) and the diaresis marc (:), because these
was made in 3. The writing with Latin alphabet (English,
French… writing) is historical writing. In this writing some words are
written by phthongs (by sounds of words), see for example in English: on, it,
last, test….. The other words are written like Greek or Latin (ancient Roma),
although here their pronunciation are
different, see for examples: Greek: πρόβλημα, τιτάν(ας), Γεωργία, Ευρώπη, ιδέα,
τυπώ(νω), Ολυμπία, φιλοσοφία, τηλέφωνο...... & English: problem (“πρόμπλεμ»), titan(«ταϊταν»), Europe («γιούροπ»), idea («αϊντία»),
type («τάϊπ»), Olympia, philosophy, telephone,... Greek: ακτίς,
Γεωργιανός, Συριανός, Λατίνος... & French: action («αξόν»),
Georgien («ζεορζάν»), Syrien
(«σιριάν»), Latin («λατάν»)... Latin: cluba
(κλούμπα -κλούβα), cupa (κούπα), & English: club («κλάμπ»), cup («κaπ»), America, plus («πλας»), imperial («ιμπίριαλ»), line («λάϊν»), double
("ντάμπλ")…. 1) The
first phthong of model words ά-λφα, β-ήτα... show us which
phthong their letter represent, i.e.: λ-άμδα
(“lamdha”) = the phthong [λ] =
[l]. Something
that not occur in writing with Latin characters (English, French... ). See
for example the letter A(a) of English alphabet. It pronounced here as e+i
and in the words: 2)
There are homophone letters, e.g.: O & Ω, Η & Υ & Ι….
Something does not exist in any other writing. 3) All
letters represent only one phthong (one sound of words) and the same in the
general written speech. Even if we write a word orthographically wrongly, we
pronounce it correct, see: Greek:
«Αύριο θα πάμε εκδρομή στην Αθήνα». (Here the letter
A(a) is always pronounced as [α] and not [ε] or [o]..., as it happen in English) Greek
wrong: <<ίνε καλί γινέκα” (Correct: Είναι καλή γυναίκα.)>>. Something
that does not occur in English or French, German... written speech. See for example the English word: go where
the letter O(o) is pronounced as “ou”,... See and the English word “idea”,
pronounce «αϊntία», where we have
4 letters and 6 phthongs 4)
There are letters for all phthongs (sounds of words). For all consonant and
for all vowels, see “letter of Greek writing system”, not in “alphabet”. Something
that does not occur in English or French, German... written speech. In
English, for example, writing the phthongs (sounds of words)
<<th-is>> and <<th-ing>> are written with the same
letter, the letter TH(th), but in Greek scipt there are two different
letters, the letters Θ(θ) and Δ(δ): Θεός, Δίας..
Same happen and with the letter Γ(γ) etc 5) Some
phthongs have not a letter, but more, see for example: O & Ω, Y
& H & I, AI & AI… We need-use these letters to distinguish
homophones (same sounds) words, see for examples: λίρα & λύρα, καλό & καλώ.. For
more see homophones letter. In
this case in English writing some homophone words have useless (not
pronounced) letters to distinguish each other, see for examples: to
& t(w)o & to(o), rit(e) & (w)rit(e) & ri(g)t(h. Same:
sent & cent & scent,
pare & pair & pear,
boy & buoy, no & know,
sail & sale, grown & groan, fought & fort, war & wore, side & sighed, made & maid, night &
knight, soared & surd, hole &
whole, morning & mourning ..... 6) We
write-read by phthongs-letters. All letters in Greek writing pronounced the
same in all written speech, except the letter Y(υ) in groups AΥ(αυ), ΕΥ(ευ), ΥΙ(υι), OY(oy)… (For more see
lately), i.e.: Greek
writing: Σήμερα είναι
Κυριακή και εμείς δεν έχουμε σχολείο. (Here the letter
a is always pronounced as a, the letter e as e… etc). Pronunciation:
Simera ine kiriaki ke emis then ehume sxolio. Mean:
To day is Sunday and we don’t have school. Something
that does not occur in English or French, German... written speech. See for example the English words: go,
come, one, more, to... where the letter O(o) is pronounced sometimes “o and
sometimes “u” or “a” or “ou”,... 7) The
phthong (sound of words) U(u) is written with the two digit letter OY(oυ) = U(u). For
more see “digital letters”. 8) The
letter X(x) pronounced "h, ch, wh" as in "Bach, home, who”… It
is like "ch" in "chair, Christ” 9) The
letters: B(β), Γ(γ), Δ(δ) are different
from Latin Β(b),
D(d), G(g) = MP(mp) NT(nt) NC(nc). The
Latin letters B(b), D(d), G(g) are abbreviation = Greek MP(μπ), NT(ντ), ΓK(γκ). In Latin
writing, we put the letters MP(mp), NT(nt), NK(nk/nc) in the compound words
and the letters B(b), D(d), G(g) in the simple words: con-plex > complex
& Babylon, con-tact & dactyl, in-correct... Booboo = μπουμπού, Goal = γκολ, double = νταμπλ. 4. The phthongs and the syllables of
words Syllable in the Greek
writing is called the smallest (least) piece in which a word can be cut and
pronounced in achieving a comfortable acoustic apprehension. I.e: α-έ-ρας, καλ-ός … (English:
mo-ther) Important
note: 1)
Every vowel in a word, alone or combined with a consonant before or alter it
makes a syllable, i.e.: ο α-ε-τος, εν, εκ, κε-νός… because the
consonants are not possible to be pronounced by themselves (separately); they
are always accompanied by a vowel. That is why, in Greek, consonants are
called «σύμφωνα = συν-φωνή» > Latin
“con-sonors” > English “consonants” (agreeing, harmonized, according) or
(along with the sound). I.e.: εν, νέ-ος, τον, ε-γέ-λα-σε.. Consonant
syllable is called the syllable in which there is one or more consonant (a
syllable containing vowel + consonant or consonants), e.g.: εκ, εν,την, βους, κε-νός.. Vowel
syllable is called the syllable in which there is not consonant (a syllable
containing a vowel only), e.g.: o α-έ-(ρας), η ω-(ραί)-α.. 2) Συλλαβή > syllable in
Greek’ derived from συν-λαβή, συν-λαμβάνω > συλλαβή = arrest,
apprehension. Phthong (Greek φθόγγος) in the Greek
writing is called one of the different (individual) voices of the word
syllables, e.g.: A-m-e-r-i-c-a,
I-t-a-l-y.. Phthongs are the vowels and
consonants, the individual sounds of the syllable in the words, as for
example the phtongs of the words: Greek
words: γράφω, Ιταλία = γ/ρ/ά/φ/ω, Ι/τ/α/λ/ί/α.. Latin
words: The
total of the different phthongs of all languages, ancient or modern, is just
twenty (20), the following: Greek: α, ε, ο, ου, ι, μ, ν, λ, ρ, σ, ζ, τ, δ, θ,
π, β, φ, κ, γ, χ Latin: a, e, o, u, i, m, n, l, r, s, z, t,
th, th, p, v, f, k, g, h The
vowel phthongs are 5: α, ε, ο, ι, oυ = u (Greek
φωνήεντα,
pronunciation “fonienta”) You’ll hear these phthongs in the first syllable of the Greek words: ά-λφα, Α-μερική.. in English: έ-ψιλον, Αί-γυπτος... in English: ου-ρά, λου-τρό... in English:
to, two, too, use.. ό-ρος, ώ-ρα,.. in
English: on, over, was.. ι-ώτα, εί-ναι, υι-οθεσία.. in
English: in, The
consonant (Greek σύμφωνα,
pronunciation “simfona”) phthongs are 15: τ, δ, θ, π, β, φ, κ, γ, χ, μ, ν, λ, ρ, σ, ζ Dental phthongs You’ll hear these phthongs in the first syllable of the Greek words: τ-άφ, τέλος… in English
words: train, total... δ-έλτα, μαδώ… in English
words: this, mother, father.. θ-ήτα, θέμα.. in English
words: nothing, thematic,... Labial phthongs You’ll hear these phthongs in the first syllable of the Greek words: π-ράξη, πόρτα, .. in English:
put, port, ... β-ήτα, βόλτα,.. in English:
vapor, over,... φ-ράση, φάρος.. in English: for,
phone, ... Palatal phthongs Listens the phthong: κ-άπα, κρέμα... in English:
car, book, back... γ-άμα, γιος,... in English:
yes, yacht, Europ x-ρέος, χαρά... in English:
Christ, hot, what.. Semivowel phthongs You’ll hear these phthongs in the first syllable of the Greek words μ-i, μνήμα, μάνα,
.. in English: mother, ν-ι, ντύνω, ναός, .. in English: nation,
know, ... λ-αιμός, λουτρό.. in English: lamp,
let, ... ρ-ω, ρεύμα, ροή... in English: rapid,
rover,.. σ-ίγμα, στάση... in English:
shortly, same... ζ-ήτα, ζυγός.. in English:
is, rise, japing, Zeus.. Important note: 1) The phthongs, the vowels and consonants, are a conventional
distinction, since the smaller part of a word is the syllable and the
consonants are always pronounced with a vowel (that is where the words “φωνήεντα = vowels” and “σύμφωνα = consonants” come
from). 2) It was the Greeks who first made the distinction between the
phthongs, the consonants and the vowels, in a conventional way, because they
realized by going so: a) Fewer symbols of writing are required since the different kinds of
phthongs are fewer than the different kinds of syllables or than the
different long and short letters that there was in ancient writings
(Cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphics, Semitics, Indians, Cretan..) before. b) Writing becomes more simplified (easier) and etymological, i.e.
that we write what we say phonetically and the same time what we mean as a
part of the speech and at the form of the word (type: gender, number, case,
person..) by using the homophone letters. 3) Phthongs and syllables are not constituent (intellectual,
etymogical) elements of words. Those that realize the linguistic expression
are the ending, subject, root, prefix, accent in case of simple inclinable
words and first and second components in case of a compound word, i.e.: γράφ-ω, συν-γράφ-ω, δια-γραφ-ή... Simply, in many words, certain linguistic elements may be a mere
phthong or just one syllable. I.e.: το έν-α, η
καλ-ή…In words without constituent elements or declension (inclination) or
their total group of phthongs (sounds of words) is also their expressive element:
δέκα, άλφα, απέναντι.. 4) The voice - phthongs changed only the: a) speed of pronunciation (the verse is pronounced continually and the
nonfiction instantaneous), b) density of air (the low density increase the speed), c) short, fine, thick... etc c(h)ord (For that reason there is boyish,
feminine,.... voice), d) kind of feeling (because of delight, grief,...) 5) The phthongs in all language are the same, because of the lingual
loan (the carriage words from language to language) and the common raw
material of the words (See “Phonetic
symbols”). 6) A phthong analogous to its company of phthongs in the words, would
be pronounced closer or open, instantaneous or continual, e.g.: abide &
umbrella, pan, disease, love & make & some... 5. The Letters of Greek alphabet and his
kinds a) The vowel and the consonants Letter
(Greek γράμμα) in
the Greek writing is called (the name given to) the symbol (line) by which we
write a phthong, a vowel or consonant, for example (such as) the letter A(a)
which represents the phthong [a], as
in English word: A-merica, the letter B(β) which represents the phthong [v], as in English word: volt… The
Greek alphabet letters are divided into two parts. The Vowels (Φωνήεντα) and the Consonants
(Σύμφωνα):
There are 7 vowels and 17 consonants: Vowels: Greek: A(α), E(ε), H(η), I(ι), Y(υ), O(ο), Ω(ω). Latin: A(a), E(e), -
I(I), Y(y), O(o), - Consonants: Dental Greek: T(τ) , Δ(δ), Θ(θ) Latin: T(t), TH(th) - Bilabial Greek: Π(π),
Β(β), Φ(φ) Latin: P(p), V(v),
F(f) Palatial Greek: Κ(κ), Γ(γ), Χ(χ) Latin: C(c), -
H(h) Semivowel nasal tongue whistling Greek: M(μ), Ν(ν), Λ(λ), Ρ(ρ), Σ(σ) Z(z) Latin: M(m), N(n), L(l),
R(r), S(s) Z(z) Double consonants : Ξ(ξ), Ψ(ψ)
Latin: X(x) PS(ps) GROUPS OF GRAMMARS ΜΠ(μπ) =
B(b), like boy: μπόμπα, μπάλα… ΝΤ(ντ) = D(d), like door : ντάμα, Ντίνος.. ΓΚ(γκ) and ΓΓ(γγ) = G(g),
like get: συγγενείς, συγκρατώ.. AY(αυ) = af/v, like in after, avocado:
ταυ (taf), αυτός (aftos), αυλή (avli).. EY(ευ) = ef/v, like in cleff, evolution: ευχή (efhi), εύλογος (evloghos)
OY(oυ) = U(u), like in put: ουρανός (uranos) AI(αι)
= Ε(ε), like in: send: σφαίρα (sfera) OI(oι)
= ΕΙ(ει) = ΥΙ(υι) = Ι(ι), Υ(υ), Η(η), like in: καλοί, καλή, καλεί, υιός.. The
groups of grammars: ου, αι,
ει, οι, υι (= u, ε, ι, ι, ι) represent one
phthong (are
two digits letters) and
the groups (with
dialytica): οϋ, αϊ, εϊ, οϊ
ιϋ are two phthongs – diphthongs, see: Μάϊος & σφαίρα (pronunciation “sfera”), θεϊκός & θείος… (For
more see : “homophone letters”, two digits litters, “diphthongs”). b) The two digits letters and diphthongs CHARACTERS (DIGITS) OF ALPHABET The 24
letters of Greek alphabet are also called elements (στοιχεία = characters),
because with them we are able to create other letters, the letters with two
digits, the digital letter: ΑΙ(αι), ΟΥ(ου), ΕΙ(ει), ΥΙ(υι), ΜΜ(μμ).. Α(α)+ Ι(ι) = ΑΙ(αι) pronounce [ε]: σφαίρα («sfera») Ο(ο) + Υ(υ) = ΟΥ(ου) pronounce, same
as U(u): ρους
(«rus») M(μ) & Μ(μ) = ΜΜ(μμ)... Similarly
in Latin: A(a) + E(e) = AE(ae): Graecia (= Greece) T(t) + H(h) = TH(th): Mathematica (mathematics < μαθηματικά), P(p) + H(h) = PH(ph): philosophia (= philosophy < Φιλοσοφία) (For more see «homophone letters» and «two digits letters».) TWO DIGIT LETTERS In
Greek writing there are letters with one digit (line, character) and others
with two letters (characters) of the alphabet. In
the second case we refer to elements (digits, characters) and two-digit
letters. Letters
(characters, with one digit): A(α), E(ε), I(ι), Κ(κ)...... Two
digits (digital) letters: AI(αι) = [ε], ΟΥ(ου) = [u], EI(ει) = ΟΙ(οι) = ΥΙ(υι) = [ι] The total of different Greek letters, with one and two
digits letters, are 39 (and 40 with final ς) as follows: 1) Vowel letters = 12 A(α) for the phthong
[ά]-λφα: Α-μερική, αετός.. OY(oυ) for
the phthong
[ου]-ρανός: ου-ρανός, λουτρό.. Ο(Ο) & Ω(ο) for the phthong [ό]-μικρον, ω-μέγα:
ώ-ρα, ό-μως,... Ε(ε) & ΑΙ(αι) for the phthong [έ]-ψιλον: έ-λαιον, Aί-γυπτος,,.. Ι(ι) = Υ(υ) = Η(η) = ΥΙ(υι) & ΟΙ(οι) & ΕΙ(ει) for the phthong [ι]-ώτα, [ύ[-ψιλον, [ή]τα: υιοθεσία, είσοδοι, υπέρ, όμοια.... 2) Consonant letters = 27 For palatial phthongs K(k) & KK(kk) for the phthong
(κ= c): κράτος, εκκλησία... Γ(γ) (y =
gh): γη, Γιάννης, γιατρός, γιος,.... Χ(χ) [wh, h]:
χαρά, χρήμα, χρέος, ... For dental phthongs Τ(τ) & ΤΤ(ττ) for the phthong [t]:
ταχύς, τρέχω, τείνω, ... Δ(δ)
[δ/dh]: δήμος, δεμάτι, δρόμος, ... Θ(θ)
[θ/th]: θεός, θάβω, θέατρο,.... For bilabial phthongs Π(π) & ΠΠ(ππ) for the phthong [p]: πατέρας, παππούς, από... Β(β) & ΒΒ(ββ) [V]: βάζω,
Σάββας, βέλος,... Φ(φ) [f]:
φωτιά, φάρος, φέτα,... For semivowel Μ(μ) & ΜΜ(μμ) for the phthong [m]: Μαρία, συμμαθητής.. Ν(ν) & ΝΝ(νν) [n]: Νίκος, έννομος,
σύννομος,... Λ(λ) & ΛΛ(λλ) [l]: Λύκος,
παλλαϊκός, λαμαρίνα... Ρ(ρ) & ΡΡ(ρρ) [r]: ροή, συρράπτω,
όρος,... Σ(σ,ς) &
ΣΣ(σσ) [s]: Σταυρός, μέλισσα,
ησυχία.. Ζ(ζ) [z]:
ζάρι, ζυγός, ... Double Ξ(ξ), Ψ(ψ), ΓΓ(γγ) for the phthongs: κς, πς νκ/γκ: ξένος,
ψάρι, συγγενής… Important note: 1) The
two-digit letters: OY(oυ), AI(αι), ΕΙ(ει), ΟΙ(οι), ΥΙ(υι) represent one
phthong and are different from diphthongs = two phthongs (These has
dialitica, dieresis): οϋ, αϊ, εϊ, οϊ, υϊ 2) The
first digits O Y E M N... of the two digit-letters OI, YI, EI MM, NN... is
unpronounced digits, e.g.: κοινή, υιός, λείπει, γράμμα... 3) The two-digits letters OY(oυ), ΑΙ(αι) pronounced [u]
and [ε]: λουξ = lux, Γραικία = Graecia (= 3) The
two-digits letters EI(ει) = ΥΙ(υι) = ΟΙ(οι) pronounced the same to I(ι): θείος, ποίοι, υιός,.. DIPHTHONGS Diphthongs
(di-phthongs = two phthongs, two sounds of the words) are called the group: ΑΙ(αϊ), ΕΙ(εϊ), ΟΙ(οϊ), ΥΙ(υϊ) ΟΥ(οϋ), AY(αϋ), ΕY(αϋ), ΗY(ηϋ) when the are
pronounced as two phthongs, when they are two vowel phthongs in
reference. The diphthongs: αϊ, εϊ, οϊ, υϊ, οϋ, αϋ, αϋ, ηϋ takes a special mark called “Dialitica”, the marcs ( ¨ ), for
distinguishing from: a) The
two-digit letters: AI(αι) = [ε], EI(ει) = ΟΙ(οι) = ΥΙ(υι) = [ι], ΟΥ(ου) =
[u], which are one vowel phthongs b) The
groups ΑΥ(αυ) = [av/f], ΕΥ(ευ) = [ev/f], ΗΥ(ηυ) = [iv/f], which
are one vowel phthongs (the vowel a, e, o) and the consonant v/f, Diphthongs:
Mάϊος (“mά-ι-ος”), προϋπολογίζω (“prο-i-pologhizho”), θεϊκός, δυϊκός.. Two
digits letters: Αίγυπτος (“eghιptos”), ρους (“rus”), θείος («thios”), υιός(«ιός»).. Diphthongs
we see in: Α) derivation
words: δυ-ϊκός, θε-ϊκός, Mά-ϊος.. Β) compound words:
προ-ϋποθέτω, ά-υλος… 6. The number (amount) of phthongs and
the letters of Greek alphabet In
Greek writing there are more letters than phthongs. Phthong (Greek φθόγγος) is called one
of the different (individual) voices of the word syllables, e.g.:
A-m-e-r-i-c-a, I-t-a-l-y.. (For more
see later) In
Greek writing for some phthongs we do
not have only one letter, but more than one, such as (for example) the
letters O(o) & Ω(ω) for the phthong
[o] as in «on, over»…, the letters: I(ι) & H(η) & Υ(υ)
& ΟΙ(οι)… for the
phthong [ι] as
in «ill, she, meet, only»..... (See homophone letters), in order to indicate
(suggest) or facilitate the etymology of words and distinguish the homophonic
(similar voice, same sound) words. More
simple, in Greek writing some phthongs have more letters than one (see o
& ω, η & υ & ι...), so that by
writing some parts of speech or types (gender, case etc) of the words with
some homophone letters on the one hand and with the rest on the other hand
for suggestion. In that way we distinguish between the same sound words and
find help in the analysis and discovering the meaning of a word. For
instance: Phonetic:
“kalis, kali” = means good (adjective)
& he, she call (verb) Orthographically,
Writing with Greek writing: καλείς, καλεί (if we have verb
and second – tree person, we write with –ει) καλής, καλή (if we have
feminale, we write with –η) καλοί (if we have
plural masculine, we write with –oi) Phonetic:
«kalo» = good (adjective) & i call (verb) Orthographically,
Writing with Greek writing: καλό (if we have
adjective, we write with –o) = good & καλώ (if we have
verb, we write with –ω) = i,
you.. call Something
that not occurs in writing with Latin characters (English, French...
writing). In English is different. See the homophone words and the
etymological writing: to(o) & t(w)o & to, (w)rit(e), ri(gh)t, rit(e)…
(We put more letters). Some times we write as in Greek or in Latin, e.g.: Greek: Ιδέα, Ευρώπη, τιτάν, Ολυμπία… English:
idea, Europe, titan, 7. Pronunciation of Greek letters: a. Pronounce of the vowel letters The
letter A(α) is
always pronounced as the letter α in the word ά-λφα. You’
ll hear this phthong (sound) in the first syllable of the Greek words α-ετός, α-έρας, πα-πας.. or in English
words: The
letter E(ε) is
always pronounced as the letter ε in the word έ-ψιλον. You’
ll hear this in the first syllable of the Greek words έ-τος, ε-μπρός.. or in English
words: The
letter Ι(ι) is always
pronounced as the letter ι in
the word: ι-ώτα. You’ ll hear
this in the first syllable of the Greek words: μι-σός, ί-σος.. or in English words: “in, The
letter Ο(ο) is always
pronounced as the letter ο in
the word ό-μικρον. You’ ll hear
this in the first syllable of the Greek words: ό-ρος. ο-ργώνω... or in English
words: on, over, was… The
Greek letters ΟΥ(ου) is always
pronounced as the letter ου = u
in the word ου-ρά. You’ ll hear
this in the first syllable of the Greek words: ου-ρανός, ρους .. or
in English words: two, too, to… The
letters E(ε) and ΑΙ(αι) are always
pronounced the same, that is to say [o], i.e.: καινές = «cenέs». They are homophone letters and needed
to distinguish homophone words, e.g: καινή & κενή,.. The
letters O(o) and Ω(ω) are pronounced
the same, that is to say [o], i.e.: σωρός = «sorόs». These letters is the same, but with different
form to distinguish homophone words e.g: καλ-ώ &
καλ-ό… The name Ω(ω)-μέγα («ο-mega») actually
means “o-big, great, large”, while the name Ο(ό)-μικρον («ο-micron») means
“o-small, little, tiny”, because the letter Ο(ο) is shorter in the size (not in the voice) from the
letter Ω(ω). Τhe letter Ω(ω) is two oo in
the size, not in pronunciation. The
letters Η(η) = Υ(υ) = ΕΙ(ει) = ΥΙ(υι) = ΟΙ(οι) are pronounced the same as Ι(ι), that is to say
[ι], i.e.: υγεία = «ighίa”, ήμεροι = «ίmeri» … These
letters is the same, but with different form to distinguish homophone words,
e.g.: Kρήτ-η, κρητ-κός, κρητ-ική… & κριτ-ής, κρητικός, κριτική…, καλ-ή
& καλ-εί & καλ-οί, λύρ-α & λίρ-α, υιοθεσία.. (For
more see homophone letters) b. Pronounce of the consonants letters 1. The consonants - semivowels: M(μ), Ν(ν), Λ(λ), Ρ(ρ), Σ(σ), Ζ(ζ) are always pronounced as the Latin
letters: M(m) N(n) L(l) R(r) S(s)
Z(z). Note: a) The
letter Σ(σ,ς) has two
varieties: The final sigma (ς) is
used only as the last letter of a word. Otherwise it is written Σ/σ. You’ll see both
them in the words «σας» (=
you, to you, your). The sigma is ordinarily pronounced like the unvoiced S in
the English word “sing a song”. Often it is pronounced voiced, like English Z
in the words “zebra, razor”, when it is immediately followed by any voiced
consonant sound – like M, N, Λ, Ρ, Β, Δ: ασβέστης, σμήνος, σβήνω, σδεύς,.. b) The
Greek letter Z(ζ) is
always pronounced as the letter ζ = z in the word ζήτα. You’ll hear this in the first syllable of the
Greek words: ζωή, ζώνη.. or in English
words: zone and: is, rise, nose,.. 2. The consonant letters: T(τ), Δ(δ), Θ(θ), Κ(κ), Γ(γ),
Χ(χ), Π(π), Β(β), Φ(φ), are always pronounced as the Latin:
T(t), TH(th), DH(dh), K(k)= C(c),
GH(gh), CH(ch), P(p), V(v), F(f), The
letter T(τ) is
always pronounced as the letter t in English words top, temple, too, tip...
You’ll hear this in the first syllable of the Greek words: ταύρος, τίτλος.. The
letter Δ(δ) is always pronounced as the letter th in
English words “the, this”. You’ll hear this in the first syllable of
the Greek words: δέλτα, δαδί.. The
letter Θ(θ) is always
pronounced as the letter th = dh in English words: thing, nothing... You’ll
hear this in the first syllable of the Greek words: θήτα, θεός, θάρος.. The
letter Γ(γ) is always pronounced as the letter y = gh as in English word:
yes, you... You’ll hear this in the first syllable of the Greek words: γάμα, γάτα.. The
letter K(k) is always pronounced as the letter k/c in English words:
combination, coffee, The
letter Γ(γ) is always
pronounced as the letter y = gh in English words: yes, yesterday... You’ll
hear this in the first syllable of the Greek words: Γιάννης, γεωργός, γιαγιά.. The
letter Χ(χ) is always
pronounced as the letter ch or (w)h in the English words: Christ, home, what,
how, why.. You’ ll hear this in the
first syllable of the Greek words: χάρος, χαρτί… The
letter Π(π) is always
pronounced as the letter p in the English words: part, pan… You’ll hear this
in the first syllable of the Greek words:
πυρά, πόρτα, παύω.. The
letter Φ(φ) is always
pronounced as the letter f = ph in
English words: fire, pharmacy,.. You’ll hear this in the first syllable of
the Greek words: φωτιά, φαρμακείο,.. 3. The
duple letters Ξ(ξ), Ψ(ψ) are always
pronounced as the Latin X(x), PS(ps) and called διπλά = double,
because they represent the consonant combination (two phthongs) κσ/ς = ks and πσ/ς = ps: λουξ = lux, ψάρι (pronunciation “psari”). Greek: Κάμερα, πόρτα, Ιταλία, Λάτιο, λουξ,
κούπα, Ρώμη... Latin:
Camera, port, Italia. Latium, lux, cupa,
Roma Greek pronunciation mean _Καλημέρα σας.
«kalιmέra sas» Good morning. _Τι κάνετε;
«Tι kάnεtε;» How are you? _Αγγλία, Λονδίνο «Αnklία,
londhίno» _Γιαγιά, Ζαχαρίας «γιαγιά, ζαcharίas» grandma, Zaccharias _Θεός, Χριστός «theos, chrιstόs» god. Christ Greek: Εγώ είμαι ο κύριος Θεόδωρος
Λιακόπουλος. Pronunciation: «εγό ίmε ο kίrιοs thεόdhoros
lιαkόpulos» Mean: I am Mr. Theodoros Liakopulos English
writing: I am tailor. My name is Mary. Greek phonetic: «Aϊ εμ τέϊλορ. Μάϊ νεϊμ ιζ Μέρι» c. Pronounce of the two-digit letters Greek: OY(oυ),
AI(αι), ΟΙ(οι) =
EI(ει) = ΥΙ(υι) Latin: U(u),
ΑΕ(ae), ΟΕ(oe)
- - The two
digits letters: AI(αι), ΕΙ(ει), ΟΙ(οι), ΥΙ(υι), ΟΥ(ου) are one phthong (one sound of the words): καινός, εκείνοι, υιός, ρους… and different of
the diphthongs: ΑΙ(αϊ), ΕΙ(εϊ), ΟΙ(οϊ), ΥΙ(υϊ), ΟΥ(οϋ) = two
phthongs (two sounds of the words): Μάϊος, θεϊκός, δυϊκός, προϋπόθεση.. The
combination of two vowels (the two - digits letters) EI(ει), ΟΙ(οι), ΥΙ(υι) simply ignore
the first vowel E(ε), Ο(ο), Υ(υ) and pronounce
only the second one I(ι),
like in English word “see”, because ΟΙ(οι) = ΕΙ(ει) = ΥΙ(υι) =
the same as (equivalent to) I(ι): Φοίνιξ
= Phoenix = “fίniks”, υιός = “ιός”, Θείος = “thίοs” The
combination OY(oυ) is
pronounced [u]: Λούξ =
Lux, ουρανός, ρους.. The
combination AI(αι) is
pronounced [ε], the
same as (equivalent to) E(ε): σφαίρα («σφέρα»), γαία («γέα»)…. Γραικία (Greek pronounce
“ghrekίa”)
& Graecia (Latin pronounce “grέkιa”. The
Greek letter I(ι),
when it is: 1)
alone, it pronounced like Η(η) = Υ(υ) = [ι]: τιμή («tιmί»), μύτη («mίtι») 2)
stands after the letters A(a), E(e), O(o), Y(υ), without dialytica, it is pronounced
together with these, as: AI(αι) = exactly like Ε(ε): καινός & κενός, ΕΙ(ει) = ΟΙ(οι) = ΥΙ(υι) = exactly
like Ι(ι): εκείνοι & εκείνη (“εκίnι”), ποιο &
πιο (“pιό»), υιοθεσία («ιοthesία»). 3) stands after the
letters A(a), E(e), O(o),
Y(υ), with dialytica, it is
pronounced divorce: αϊ, εϊ,
οϊ, υϊ: μαϊντανός (“μαιntanόs”), θεϊκός (“theικόs”), ευνοϊκός («εvnoιkόs”),
δυϊκός (“dhιικόs”)... The
Greek letter Y(υ) is
vowel and consonant, pronounced sometimes as I(ι) = I(i) (when it is without o, ε and with
dialytica): μύτη, ύμνος,προ-ϋπόθεση (= two
words) and sometimes as B(β) or Φ(φ) = V or F ( in
group αυ, ευ): ευχή (“efchi”), αυτό (“afto”), αυγό (“avgho”)…..
(More see later). The
Greek letter Y(υ),
when it is: 1)
alone it is pronounced like I(ι): ύψιλον (“ίpsilon”), μύτη (“mίtι”), δάκρυ (“dhάkrι”), στάχυ (“stάchι») 2)
stands after the letter A, E, H, without dialytica, it is pronounced f or V: αυτά («αftά»), αυλή («avlί»), ευχή («εvchί»)... 3)
stands after the letter A, E, H, with dialytica, it is pronounced as [ι], like Ι(ι): άϋλος, ξεϋφαίνω,... The
letters OY(ου) are
pronounced [u]: λουξ = lux, νους (“nus”), βους (“vus”) (For
more see the “Two digit letters, Homophone letters & Diphthongs”.) Important note: 1) The Greek letter B(β) is not pronounced
like Latin letter B(b) = MP(mp), but like the letter V(v) in English words: “ 2) The Greek letter Δ(δ) is not pronounced like Latin letter D(d) = NT(nt), but like the
letters th = dh in English words “this, these, that”..: δέλτα = “dhεlta”, δεν = “dhεn”, δετός = “dhetόs”, δράμα = “dhrάma”…Different in English: doll = “ntol”, day = “ntέι”.... 3) The Greek letter Γ(γ) is not pronounced like Latin letter G(g) = nc/nk, but like the
letters y in English words “yes, you, yesterday..”: γάμα = “ghama” not “gama”, γωνία = “ghonία”, Γαλλία = “ghalίa”... Different English: 4) The combination NK(νκ), ΝΓ(νγ) > ΓΚ(γκ),
ΓΓ(γγ) are pronounced like Latin letter G(g): συγγενής = “sιgenίs”,
γκαρίζω = “gariζο» 5) In Latin language the letters B(b), D(d), G(g) are pronounced the
same as MP(mp), NT(nt), NC(nc/nk). We use MP(mp), NT(nt), NC(nc/nk) in the compound words: con-pare >
compare, syn-pathy > sympathy (συν-πάθος), syn-thesis (συν-θέσις)
> synthesis.. We use the letters B(b), D(d), G(g) in the simple words: drama, ball,
table, d. The homophone letters Homophone
letters (= Greek “ομόφωνα γράμματα”) in the Greek
language is the name given (are called) the letters which have the same
pronunciation and which stand for same phthong, the following: For vowel: I(i) = H(h) = Y(y) = OI(οι) = EI(ει) = YI(υι), are pronounced [ι],
like: ill, keep.. ΑΙ(αι) & Ε(ε),
are pronounced [ε], like: ten, Graecia, Ω(ω) & Ο(ο), are pronounced [ο], like: on,
over, Ωnasis For consonants: Μ(μ) & ΜΜ(μμ) are pronounced = [m], Ν(ν) & ΝΝ(νν) = [n], Λ(λ) & ΛΛ(λλ) = [l], Ρ(ρ) & ΡΡ(ρρ) = [r], Σ(σ,ς) &
ΣΣ(σ,ς) = [s], Τ(τ) & ΤΤ(ττ) = [t] The
above homophone letters used in Greek writing according to rules (according
to part of speech, the gender, the number and the case of the words) in order
to facilitate the etymology of the writing words. For distinction of the
homophone forms as well as a suggestion (to indicate) to the etymological understanding
of the writing word, to help yourself in the written speech, see: φύλο & φίλο & φύλλο, καλός & καλώς, καλή & καλεί & καλοί... Rules: The verbs are writing with –ω: σήκω, καλώ, φοιτώ, λέγω... The adverbs with –ω(ς): καλώς, κακώς, ... παρακάτω, άνω, κάτω.. The females with –η: Καλή, κακή, Νίκη, νίκη... The males with –ο: Καλός, κακός, Νίκος... The neutrals with –ο, ι: σύκο, κακό, ελαφρό,... τυρί, φιλί,.... (For more refer to the Greek Section. ) In
examining the words we notice that many of them are homophones (similar
voice, same sound words) which was caused by either phonological variation or
their mutations in time and on inflection (because of homophonic endings): καλ(έ)-ω > καλώ, καλ(έ)-εις > καλείς, καλ(έ)-ει > καλεί... (= verb, ρήμα) & καλός, καλή, καλό (= adjective, επίθετο ) & καλός > καλοί (plural)... Moreover
in examining these same sound words, we notice that they do not belong to the
same kind of speech or gender or form of the words. In
addition the Greek writing had for some phthongs more letters than one, so
that by writing some parts of speech or types or phonological variations of
the words with some homophone letters on the one hand and with the rest on
the other hand. In that way we distinguish between the same sound words and
find help in the etymology (analysis and discovering the meaning) of a word.
For instance: Phonetically
(in oral speech): “καλός, καλί, καλίς, καλό..” =
Orthographically (in Greek writing): καλώ, καλείς, καλεί... (With –ω, ει = verb) καλό, καλή, καλής, ... (With – ο,η = adjective) καλώς (with –ως = adverb) & καλός (with -oς = adjective) καλή (with –η =
singular ) & καλοί ( with -οι = plural) Same: “ίλι” = ύλη & ίλη & ήλοι &
είλη, “ίδι” = είδη & ήδη & Ίδη, «λίπι» = λύπη & λείπει & λίπη,
«φίλο» = φίλο & φύλο & φύλλο, «λίρα»= λίρα & λύρα, «κουτί» =
κουτί & κουτοί & κουτή... The
examples above show us that whenever there are no the homophone letters, we
are not able to know what we write.
Because of the same sound words we are not able to distinguish whether
a words is noun or verb, male or female, plural or singular.... 8. Silent letters & unpronounced
digits There
are a few of the case where some letters are not pronounced. Those are: The
letter Y of the letter groups, combination EY(ευ)-, when following letter is B(β) or Φ(φ), e.g.: εύφορος, ευφορία (that’s where
the English word “euphoria” come from), ευβοϊκός, Εύβοια.. One of
the two identical consonants: MM(μμ), NN(νν), ΣΣ(σς),…, e.g.: αλλά, βλέμμα, εκκλησία Τhe letter Π(π) in the
consonant combination - MPT-, eg.: Πέμπτη = «pέmtι» The
first digits A E Y in the two-digit
letters. The
digits (combination) ΕΙ(ει) = YI(υι) = ΟΙ(οι) is equivalent to I(i) = [ι]. The
digits OY(ου), AI(αι) are pronounced
together. The combination ΑΙ(αι) is equivalent
to E(ε) and
the combination ΟΥ(ου) is
pronounced [u]: νους, σφαίρες.. 10. THE ORTHOGRAPHIC (SPELLING) MARKS a. The accent and accent mark (‘) In
Greek writing there is a little sign just like the single quotation mark,
that tells us where we will pronounce the syllable louder, e.g.: κα-λός, κά-λος,, ά-δικος ... Accent
(τόνος) is
called a louder pronunciation of a syllable in a word (the accentuation of
the voice in a syllable of a word, e.g. fά-ther = πα-τέ-ρας Accent
mark (τονικό σημάδι) is called the
marc (΄) by
which we indicate the accent syllable (the name given the sign in written
speech above the vowel of the stressed accentuated syllable), e.g.: πατέρας (father), μητέρα (mother), αυτοκίνητο (car), οικογένεια (family). More simple, the loudest vowel in a word is identified with an acute accent ('). It
goes upon the vowel of the syllable, which is pronounced the loudest, e.g. καλό, ημέρα,... If
the initial vowel is capitalised and stressed; the acute accent is placed on
the upper left corner of the vowel, e.g.
Άρης.
When using block letters, the acute accent isn’t used. For example, ΚΑΛΟ, ΑΡΗΣ… Every
word of at least two syllables or more requires one. Only the three last
syllables can be accented. Important note: 1) In oral speech (in all languages) one syllable of each word is
accented, except in words of one syllable, see in English: morning, pronounce
“ mόrnιnk”, Greek: κα-κός,
ά-τυ-χος.... 2) In the Greek writing we always put the accent mark on top of the
stressed vowel letter: κα-λός,
νέ-ος.. , Except the words with one syllable: το, της, ποιο, μια, δυο.., because it is understood. Something that does not occur in writing with Latin characters, see in
English: morning (= “ μόρνινκ”), 3) The accent is for the expansion of the pronunciation (it is
difficult to pronounce the same all the syllable of a word) and in Greek
language has notional importance. Accent combined with endings (Something
that does not occur in the other languages) state what part of speech and sometimes
what type is a word. I.e.: εξοχ-ή, μετοχ-ή, Ξάνθ-η… (= noun) έξοχ-η, μέτοχ-η,
ξανθ-ή.. (= adjectives) άδικ-ο, άπορ-ο,
άτυχ-ο, .. (= adjective) & αδικ-ώ, απορ-ώ,
ατυχ-ώ.... (= verb), έξοχ-ος, κάθετ-ος,
υπόγει-ος,.... (= adjective) & εξόχ-ως, καθέτ-ως, υπογεί-ως... (= adverb),... ξεκίνα, περπάτα,
αγάπα… (= imperative) ξεκινά, περπατά, αγαπά… (= indicative) 1) Words with two or more syllables require an
accent. If the accented syllable is omitted due to abbreviation, then the
accent isn't used. For example, μου είπε becomes "μού.πε" If the accent falls on a
two digits letter it is placed on the second vowel. For example, παίζω. In παίζω, the pronunciation of E is as in egg, (pezho), not
pa-i-zh-o as in tsai. If it is placed
on the first vowel of the diphthong; the two vowels are said separately. For example, τσάι is pronounced as tsai and not as tse. 2) Monosyllabic words aren't accented because there
is only one syllable. There are exceptions to this rule. Primarily this
happens to remove any ambiguity when reading and writing. The significant
examples are below. 3) The accent of a monosyllabic word can be moved to
the last syllable of the preceding word.
It is accented on the third to last syllable and followed by an
enclitic. For example, compare ο πρόεδρος and ο πρόεδρός μου. 4) Disyllabic words loosing a syllable because of
elision or apocope, keep their accent, even though they may appear to be
monosyllabic. For example, λίγο από όλα becomes λίγ’ απ΄όλα. If two enclitics follow a verb accented on the penult; the enclitic
following the verb also bears an accent mark.
For example, δώσε μου το ” but “δώσε μου.”
Notice that πρόεδρος
collectively make up three syllables; just like πρόεδρος does in rule 3 above. Rules of modern accentuation 1. The
stress mark goes (is placed) on top of stressed vowel letter (words with one
syllable do not need an accent) and: 3.
Above (on the top of) the small one digit vowel (α, ε, ο, η, υ, ω, ι): καλός, ημέρα, άγιος, πρώτος, ύψος.. 4. On
the second digit at the two digit letters: αι, οι, ει, υι, ου (in order to show that they are one
phthong), when αι = [ε], οι = ει = υι = [ι], ου = [u]): σφαίρα, καλοί, θείος, προύχοντας... 5. On
the first letter at the diphthongs αϊ, εϊ, οϊ, υϊ ( in
order to show that there are two phthongs
and not two digit-letters, when the letters α, ε, ο, ι are
stressed and do not the ι): Μάιος or Μάϊος, νέϊκος, ευβόϊος.. 6.
Above (on the top of) the letter Y(υ) in the diphthongs αυ, ευ, ηυ, when
the letters α, ε, η are stressed and the letter υ is pronounced β/φ (= v/f)., when
the letter Υ(υ) is consonant: παύω, αύριο, εύρος, ηύρα.. 7.
Above the letter α, ε, η in
the diphthongs αϋ, εϋ, ηϋ, when the letter
υ is stressed and
pronounced as [ι],
when the letter Y(y) is vowel: άυλος, έυπνον,.... Which words are stressed and which aren’t Every
word that has two or more syllables has an accent, because in this case one
syllable stands out of the other, e.g.: όχι, καλημέρα, θεί-ος, Θε-ός... The stress marks are not indicated in: a) Monosyllable
words: με, σε, και, να, σαν,
δεν, ο, η, το, πες, βρες... b) the words
that because of elision have lost their stressed syllable in speech: μου (εί)πε > μου ΄πε, από ευθείας > απ’ ευθείας, κατ’ αρχήν, παρ’ ότι... We put stress mark on the: Conjunction
ή in order to
distinguish it from the article η: η Μαρία ή η Γιάννα… Possessive
pronouns: μού, σού, τού... to
distinguish the weak forms of personal pronouns: μου, σου, του, της .., e.g.: το [έγγραφό μου/σου] λέει άλλα. & το έγγραφο [μού/ σού λέει] άλλα. Interrogatives
πού, πώς in order to distinguish
between conjunctions πού (= ώστε), πώς (= ότι) and the
pronouns που (= ο οποίος,α,ο) : Πού και πώς θα πάμε; Μας είπε πού και πώς θα πάμε...... & Είπε πως (=ότι) θα πάμε. Εκείνος που
(= ο οποίος) έφυγε. Είναι τόσο δυνατό που (= ώστε) νικά ελέφαντα. b. Dieresis marks (¨) (Greek: διαλυτικά σημεία) Dieresis marks (··) is only placed on i or
y to show us that there is diphthong. For example, "αι" is two digits letter - pronounced as e in egg
while, "α ϊ" is diphthong = two letters - pronounced as ai
in main. The
dieresis marks (there is no name for this marks in English. German Umlauts)
are placed on the top of the letters ι or υ to
denote than this (the letter ι or υ) must be
pronounced separately, when the previous letter is one of the vowels α, ε, o, υ and not as
two-digit letter or as group of one vowel and the consonant f or v: Μάϊος, θεϊκός, δυϊκός, ομόϊος.. άϋλος
(“α-ι-los”, υ = ι)
& αυλός (“avlόs”, υ
= v), προϋπόθεση
(proiipothesi, ου = ο + ι) & ουρανός (ου = u). NOTE: 1) The dialytica or diaeresis is used over two vowels ϊ, ϋ, when either of two follows another vowel with which it ordinary
forms a diphthong to indicate that it is to be treated as a separate vowel. 2) The dialytica marks distinguish us the two-digit letters from
diphthongs or suggest us the contracted words (synaeresis words) and not
contacted words. We put dialytica on the not contracted words (= two
phthongs), see: ομόϊος, θεϊκός, γάϊα,... = not contracted words
and: ομοίως, θείος, γαία... (pronounced “thίοs, omios, ghea..) =
contacted words ( synaeresis words = one phthong). Omission Dialytica
marks can be omitted, when the digit: α, ε, ο, η of the: αϊ, εϊ, οϊ, υϊ, οϋ, εϋ, αϋ, ηϋ are accented
(have a stress mark). Stressing (accented) the vowel before ι and υ is a way of saying
that we pronounce their elements, for example: νέϊκος & νέικος, Μάϊος & Μάιος The groups: αυ, ευ, ηυ: Without
dialytica or stressed on υ, if
this can be stressed αύ, εύ, ηύ, are pronounced αv/f, εv/f, ιv/f: αυλή, ευχή, αυτά, ταύτα, εύκολος, ευοδώ,.... With
dialytica αϋ, εϋ, ηϋ or stressed on α ε η, if
they can be stressed άυ, έυ, ήυ, are pronounced αϊ, εϊ, ιϊ : ξεϋφαίνω, Ταΰγετος, άυλος,.. The groups: αι, ει , οι, υι, ου Without
dialytica (or stressed on ι, if this can be
stressed) consist two-digit letters (αι =[ε], ου = [u], οι = υι = ει = [ι] = one
phthong): σφαίρα, ουρανός, όμοιοι, υιοθεσία, θείος.. With
dialytica (or stressed on α ε ο ο, if
they can be stressed) : αϊ, εϊ, οϊ υϊ, οϋ = άι, έι, όι, ίι, όυ are diphthong,
we pronounce separately, not contracted (two vowel phthongs >
diphthongs): Μάϊος, προϋπάρχω, θεϊκός, ευνοϊκός, δυϊκός,.. , Contraction (or synaeresis) is
the name given to the subtraction (omission) of a vowel where two occur
together (in the contiguous) in a word or both of them and putting in another
vowel, e.g. : τιμ(ά)ω > τιμώ, τιμ(ά)εις > τιμάς, γαλ(έα) > γαλή, ποι(έε)ται > ποιείται, τιμ(άου)σι > τιμούσι, Αθην(ά)α > Αθηνά,… In contraction (synaeresis) we write the words: a) same (as in not contracted), but without dialytica: ευν(ό)ϊα – ευνοϊκός > εύνοια, θ(έ)ϊος – θεϊκός > θείος, γάϊα
> γαία..... b) with letter ω, η,
ει instead αo, εα, εε: γαλ(έα) > γαλή, ποι(έε)ται > ποιείται, τιμ(αό)μενος > τιμώμενος or τιμούμενος, Ηρακλέας > Ηρακλής,... Synaeresis is occurred in English, but does not indicated like Greek:
live (“lαϊv”) > living (“lάϊvink > lίvιnκ”),.. c. Apostrophe (‘) (= Greek απόστροφος) The apostrophe (') is used only
when words are abbreviated. The
apostrophe is used when there is elision (e.g. σ’ αγαπώ) or apocope (e.g. φέρ’το) and aphaeresis (e.g. μου ‘φερε). The apostrophe is the mark by which we indicate the
elimination (non-pronounced) of the initial or the terminal vowel of the word
in oral speech. It replaces the first or last vowel of a word, when this
vowel is omitted due to one of the “vowel alternation”, e.g.: Greek: λίγ’ απ’ όλα, σ’ αγαπώ (= σε αγαπώ),
που (εί)ναι > πού ‘ναι... English:
She can’t (= can not) drive well. There
are three 8’s in 1888. There
are two A’s, two m’s and two R’s in the word “grammar”. In the
Greek written speech, the marc that replaces the first or the last vowel of a
word, when this vowel is omitted to one of the «vowel alteration», i.e.: Ekthlipsis (elision): αυτό (ε)κείνο = αυτό ‘κείνο, ουδ(έ) ενός > ούδ’ > ενός,
είν(αι) ανάγκη > είν’ ανάγκη … (We have here
two word, two accent syllable) Crasis (constitution, crasis mean compound): σ(ε) αγαπώ > σ’ αγαπώ,
που (εί)ναι > πού ‘ναι,
μού (εί)πε > μού ‘πε… (We have here one word, one accent syllable.) Apocope (abscission, apocope mean something omitted): φέρ(ε) το > φέρ’ το,
πιάσ(ε) το > πιάσ’ τους…
(We have here on word, one accent syllable, the vowel is omitted
before t- of the article and not before other vowel) Note: 1) We
use the apostrophe to show that we have two words instead of one, for
example: σού ΄πα = 2 words [σου (εί)πα] & σούπα alone word, the
meal in this name] 2)
Word which loses their stressed syllable is pronounced as compound words with
the former (of the following) word, for example: που (εί)ναι = που ’ναι (one word) =
crasis (constitution), whereas: είν(αι) ανάγκη = είν’ ανάγκη (two words) = ekthlipsis (elision) d. Comma of words or decimal point (,) (η υποδιαστολή) It is
used only: In
relative pronoun ό,τι (= κάθε τι, όλα,
whatever, every one, all ) to distinguish it from the conjunction ότι (= that). In
numbers (decimal point) expressed as a e.
PUNCTUATION MARKS (DOTS) Full stop period (.), (Greek “τελεία”, mean end) Is
placed at the end of a complete sentence. The first letter of the word that
comes after the period is capitalized, just like in most European languages
(English, German etc). _Η Μαρία είναι φοιτήτρια. Ο Χρήστος είναι
μαθητής. = Mary
is student. Christ (Χρήστος) is
pupil. Exclamation mark (!) (Greek
“Θαυμαστικό, mean
“declare”) It is
used same way as in English: _Hello! = Γεια σας! Τι ωραίο αμάξι! = What
a beautiful car! _Mind!
= Πρόσεχε! Comma (,) (Greek
«κόμμα»,
mean a small part) The comma (,) is used just as in English. Greek: H Μαρία αγόρασε ένα
καπέλο, ένα ζευγάρι παπούτσια, ένα φόρεμα, μια φωτογραφική μηχανή και μια
βαλίτσα. English: Mary
bought a hat, a pair of shoes, a new dress, a camera and a suitcase. The comma is also used as a
decimal point and for parenthesis. One strange usage in Greek is to
distinguish ότι
(that/which) from ό,τι
(whatever). There are
occurrences where ό,τι is written without the comma: ότι In mathematics, the comma and the period switch
places in Greek. For example, 0,5 is a
half, while 1.000 is a thousand. Semicolon (΄ )
(Greek
«άνω τελεία», it mean upper full stop) It is
used in the same way as in English, but not that it looks like the English.
The semicolon marc in English is (;) and in the Greek is (΄) Greek: Αυτή δεν μπορούσε να φάει ή να
κοιμηθεί’ η δύναμή της… English:
She could not eat or sleep; her strength, never great, failed her entirely
and nothing that Nerina could do could give her hope or solace. _Το νερό είναι λίγο΄ ας το προσέχουμε. The question marc (;) (Greek
“Ερωτηματικό”) It is
used in the same way as in English, but not that it looks like the English.
The question marc in English is (?) and in the Greek is (;). Ιt looks like the
English semicolon. _Τι είπε αυτός; =
What he say? _Πώς είσαι; = How are you? _Did
you go to the cinema last night? = Πήγε σινεμά χθες βράδυ. The colon (:) (Greek
“τα επεξηγηματικά”, it mean
explanation, or άνω κάτω ή διπλή τελεία, it mean double
full stop) It is
used like in English, when we quote someone or when we enumerate, explain or
state a result. _Η Μαρία είπε: Ο Νίκος είναι κακός
άνθρωπος. = Mary
said: Nick is bad man. _Θα πάρω, τα εξής: Τα πράγματά σου, Τα εισιτήρια μας για Κρήτη, Τον… The quotation marks (<<>>) (Greek
“Εισαγωγικά”) It is
used like in English. Greek: Ο Γιώργος είπε <<Εγώ οδήγησα μια
κάντιλακ χθες το απόγευμα>>.. English:
George said “I drove a cadillac yesterday in the afternoon”. _O Γιάννης είπε την λέξη «Υπουργός». = John
said the word “Ipurghόs” (Υπουργός = the minister) Old accent marks & pneumatics In
Modern Greek writing we have only one accent marc, the marc (΄). Until 1982
there were three different accent marks in Greek writing: The
marc (‘) called οξεία
(pronunciation “oxia”) The marc (~)
called περισπωμένη
(pronunciation “perispomeni”) The
marc (’) called βαρεία, (pronunciation
“varia”) (For
more see in the Greek section) The dash (-) is used to split up words at the end of a
line. The brackets (()) are used as in English. The 3 dots (...) are used as in English. The hyphen (-) is used, when writing dialogue, to
show that another person speaks. For example: -Γεια σας παιδιά. -Γειά σου Αλεξάκι. Τι κάνεις; Καλά; -Ναι, μωρό μου Sometimes
the double hyphen (--) is used as parenthesis. DIFFERENCES IN PUNCTUATION Greek
punctuation marks are similar to that of English. Only three signs have different meanings. The English quotation marks do appear in
Greek context.
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CHAPTER 2nd SPELLING OF
LETTERS (ORTHOGRAPHIC
RULES) Sp Κρήτη >κρητικός (with –η-) & κρίνω > κριτικός (with -ι-) συν + λόγος > σύλλογος (compounded
word: n + l = ll), γράφω > γράφ-μα – γράμμα (derived
word: p, v, f + m = mm),... καλό (adjective, επίθετο, with -o) & καλώ (verb, ρήμα with -ω), καλή (adjective, επίθετο, with -η) & Καλή (proper name
with K-), φίλο (= friend) &
φύλο (of people)
& φύλλο ( of
tree), Rules
of sp a) Sp Capital
letters are used for the first letter of a: Sentence,
to distinguish one sentence from another (Like in English): _Σήμερα είναι Κυριακή. Αύριο θα πάω
σχολείο. Proper
or first name, to distinguish nouns from proper nouns: _ Μαρία, Νίκος Παπαδόπουλος, Αζόρ, πλοίο
«Κρήτη».. Important note: In the Greek writing, if a word (or a proper noun) is used as an
adjective or common noun it used small letter. It used capital letter only
when it is used as proper noun: αγαθή (γυναίκα, adjective) & Αγαθή (proper noun, name of
woman), κόκκινος (= adjective, red) & κ. Kόκκινος (= proper name, a man), κυψέλη (bee) & Κυψέλη (a Greek town), This does not occur in
English, i.e.: English: The Latin writing system. & The Latin is an ancient
country. (Here the word “Latin” =
adjective & proper noun) Greek: Το λατινικό
σύστημα γραφής. & Το Λάτιο είναι μια αρχαία χώρα. b) Sp Typological
rules are those that tell us which of the homophone letters o & ω, η & ι... is going to be used at the end of a word,
in order to show us their part of speech or the type (gender, number, case,
person) or to distinguish us the homophone words: Phonetically
(in oral speech): “καλός,ί,ό/ kalos,i,o” =
Orthographically (in Greek writing): καλ-ός,ή,ό (with –o,η = adjective, the word mean “it is
good”), καλ-ώ, είς,εί (with –ω,ει = verb, the word
mean “i call, cry”) καλ-ώς (with –ως = adverb, the word mean “it is
beautiful, good”) The
homophone letters o & ω, η & ι & υ … in the suffix
(ending) of the words show us their part of speech or the type (gender,
number, case, person) or distinguish us the homophone words, when we have
homophone roots and suffix: καλ-ό & καλ-ώ, καλ-ή & καλ-οί & καλ-εί… RULES 1. Verb with –ω,ει: καλ-ώ, καλείς, καλεί... σήκω,
φιλώ... 2.
Adjective & nouns with –ο,η: 3. Feminine with –η: καλ-ή, κακή, νίκη, Νίκη, φίλη... 4. Neuter with –ι,ο: καλ-ό, σύκ-ο, κακό... τυρί, ψωμί.. 5. Masculine with –ο,η (plural –οι): Νίκ-ος, Γιάνν-ος,
Γιάνν-ης, Μανώλης,… καλ-οί, κακοί, πετεινοί... (For
further details see in the Greek Section) c) Sp Thematic
rules are those that tell us, which letter from homophone letters o & ω, η & υ & ι.... to use in
the theme (= the begin, the base) of a word in order to show their derivation
(root or prototype word etc), so that we can to find their etymology more
easing, and at the same time to distinguish the homophone words, when this is
not possible to do so (to occur) by using typological rules. Phonetically:
“λίπι/lipi”
= Orthographically: “λίπη” (with ι, it is neuter noun, plural = fat) & λύπη (with υ, it is feminine
noun, singular = pain, regret) & λείπει (with ει, it is verb = be absent) The
homophone letters o & ω, η & ι & υ … in the theme
(= the begin, the base) of a word help us to find the kind of a word or to
distinguish the homophone words, when we have homophone roots: Κρήτ-η > κρητ-ικός, κρητ-ική.. & κριτ-ής > κριτ-ικός, κρητική.. RULES: 1. The derived words are written according to the original words: Κρήτ-η (original word) > κρητ-ικός (derived word, with letter η, as in the
word Κρήτη), κριτ-ής (original) > κριτ-ικός (derived, with letter ι, as in word κριτή).. 2. The compound words are written: With the letters νν μμ
λλ ρρ if we have ν + ν, μ, λ, ρ: εν-νόμος > έννομος, συν-μαθητής,>
συμμαθητής, σύν-λογος > σύλλογος, συν-ράπτω > συρράπτω With the letter κκ, ββ...
if we have κ + κ, β + β: εκ-κλησία, Σάβ-βας,..... With γκ, γγ, γχ, if we
have ν + κ γ χ: συν-καιρός > σύγκαιρος, συν-γένος > συγγενής, συν-χαίρω
> συγχαίρω... With the letter –o-, if the second word of the compound word begin
with a consonant: κρεο-πωλείο,
συχνο-ρωτώ... and with the letter –ω-, if the
second word begin from vowel o: επ-ώνυμα (όνομα), αν-ώδυνος (οδύνη)... With the rr if the second word begin with r: επίρρημα,
απόρρητος,... or if both the words of the compounded have r like υπερ-ροδιακός... (For further details see in the Greek section) d) The phthongs [s], [n] and letters Σ(σ,ς), Ν(ν) Phthong
[s] is written as Σ(σ) in middle
(inside) of a word and as Σ(ς) at the end of
the word. The
letters N(ν) and Σ(σ) are pronounced
loudly in the begin or inside of a word and slightly-soft voiced when found
at the end of a word: σκάλα, πάσα, καλός, της, την Note: 1)
Some words that end in the letter –n, like the articles την, τον, the conjunction
μην, δεν etc, drop the
final N(ν)
before words that start with a consonant other than κ, π. τ and ξ, ψ: Keep
it before fine k p t: τον
αέρα, την ημέρα, μην πας, δεν τέλειωσα.. Drop
it before rest: τη βέργα,
το(ν) γέρο, την δένω, ένα(ν) φίλο, δε θέλω, μη μιλάς,... 2) In
many Greek words the last phthong Ν(ν) make (turned) Γ(γ) or M(m). If the
next word starts with bilabial π, β, φ, ψ, then it is
(some times) pronounced as [m], before palatial κ γ χ as γ: συν-πάσχω > συμπάσχω, συν-φέρω > συμφέρει, συν-βαίνει > συμβαίνει, συν-ψηφίζω > συμψηφισμός... συν-καιρός > σύγκαιρος, συν-γενής > συγγενής, συν-χαίρω > συγχαίρω,.... τον κήπο > «τογκήπο», την πάω > «τημπάω» δεν πάω > «δεμπάω», τον ψάχνω >
«τομψάχνω» 3) The
letter Σ(σ) before the
voiced consonants B(β), Γ(γ), Μ(μ) some times
pronounced as [ζ]: Change
it: ασβέστης = «αζβέστις», πλάσμα = «πλάζμα», σγουρός = «ζγουρός», σμήνος, σμίγω, σβήνω, Τρίσβαθο, σμάλτο. Normally:
Σνίτσελ, Ισλάμ, Γιουγκοσλαβία... Moreover
the final –ς is
pronounced ζ
before words that start with a voiced consonant B(β), Γ(γ), Μ(μ), Δ(δ)...: Change
it: πές μου = “πέσμου” &
“πέζμου”, τους βλέπω, τις δασκάλες, στους δρόμους, Normally: τις λίμνες, τις άδειες, τις νύκτες,
τους ρόλους... c) The letter Υ(υ) A. Orthography By
using the letter (character) Y(υ) we write the phthongs [v] or [f] only in the
prefix –suffix, as: the
final phthong [v and f] in the words: ευ, ταυ, as
well in the compound and derivatives: ευ-φορία, ευ-χαριστώ, ταυ-τίζω, ευ-λογία... the
phthong [v], when is prefix or suffix, in the ending –ευω, -ευομαι: ιππέ(υ)ω, ερμηνε(ύ)ω, κουρεύω, κουρεύομαι... In
other cases, we use the letter B(β), Φ(φ): βοσκός = “voscos”, φόρεμα = “forema”,... The
phthong [ι] is
only written with letter Y(y) in certain words, such as: The
adjectives ending with –is/os: ελαφρός = ελαφρύς, μακρός = μακρύς,.. The
word derived from certain phonetic variations of the u: κούπα (cupa) > κύπη > κύπελλο... B. Pronunciation: The
letter Y(υ) is pronounced [ι], when it is alone: μύτη = «miti», υπέρ = «ιper»... or when it has dialitica (diareses): άϋπνος & άυπνος (“aϊpnos”), προϋπόθεση (“proϊpoθesi”),... The
letter Y(υ) is not pronounced, when it is with the
letter o in the two digital letters OY(oυ): ρους, προύχοντας,.. as well when
it is before Β(β), Φ(υ): ευφορία ( = “eforia”), Εύβοια (= “evia”),.... The
letter Y(υ) is pronounced [v], when it is before a
vowel digits (= ω α ε ο υ..), semivowel (μ ν λ ρ) and medium (γ β δ) letter: ευωδιά, αυλή, αυγά, Αυδού, εύσωμος... The
letter Y(υ) is pronounced [f], whenever it is exists
before the rest of the letters (spirant = σ ζ ξ, aspirate φ χ θ, fine
κ π τ): αυτό, ευθύνη, ευχή, αυθάδεια, Εύξεινος PHONEMIC
MUTATIONS AND
ORTHOGRAPHIC RULES Some
times in the conjugation, composition (synthesis of word) and derivation
(reproduction word from other word) of the words many times occur phthongs
changes, as the followings: Addition of a phthong: λύω > λύ(ν)ω, πυρία > (σ)πύρ(τ)α, κόνις > (σ)κόνη...,
Subtraction of a phthong: τιμ(ά)ω > τιμώ, τιμά(ει)ς > τιμάς, (Β)ενετία > Ενετία., γρά(φ)μα > γράμμα, συ(ν)-μαθητής > συμμαθητής.... Alternation of a phthong: πένης > πείνα, τρέπω > τροπή, νέμω
> νομή, αθρόως > αθροί(ζ)ω, ήρθα > ήλθα, δένδρον
> δέντρο... Transfer of a phthong: σπόρια
- όσπρια, rapio – αρπώ – αρπάζω,
εκς –εξ > ξε-.... In
Greek writing some of the above phonemic variations are indicated with
orthographically sign (apostrophe or specific tonic mark) or with a concrete
homophone letters of the o & ω, η &
υ... in order to
indicate the etymology of the words, e.g.: With the letter οι, if the phthong [ι] is proceed
from [o]: αθρόω > αθροίζω, μόριο > μοίρα, στόχος
> στοίχος.. With the letter αι, if the phthong [ε] is proceeded
from [α] or αϊ: χαρά
> χαίρω, ύφανση – υφαίνω... With the letter η, if the phthong [ι] is proceeded
from [ε] or [a]: άρξω – υπ-ήρξα, άγω > ηγούμενος, αμαρτάνω – ήμαρτον.. χρέος, χρέματα > χρήμα, Μνεσίθεος
> Μνησίθεος,.... (For more details see in the Greek section) In
oral speech, with apostrophe (the vowel which is not pronounced): Crasis (constitution): σ΄ αγαπά, μ’ αγαπά, πού ΄ναι, μού ‘πε.. = σε αγαπά, με αγαπά, που είναι, μου
είπε.. Ekthlipsis
(elision): ουδ’ ενός,
ουτ΄ αυτός, αυτό ‘κείνο, είν’ ανάγκη… = ουδέ ενός, ούτε αυτό, αυτό εκείνο,
είναι ανάγκη… Apocope
(abscission): φέρ’ το,
πιάσ΄ την, πάρ’ τους… = φέρε το… (For more see “Apostrophe”) The
above phonemic mutation (variations) occur in all languages, see for example
in English: An
apple & a man (a, an) ι
> ε: athlete («άθlιt») > athletic
(«αθλέtικ»). Same: extreme
> extremity, sheep > shepherd, intervene > intervention, hero >
leroine, serene, serenity,.... εϊ > α: volcano (“vοlκέϊnun”) > volcanism (“vοlκαnism»). Same:
profane > profanity, grateful > gratitude, explain > explanatory,
chaste > chastity,... αου > ου: pronounce (“prοnάuns”) >
pronunciation (“prοnunsιεϊsοn”). Same: profound > profundity, abound >
abundant, south > southern, found > fundamental,... εου, αου > o: mediocre >
mediocrity, joke > jocular, diagnose > diagnostic, microscope > microscopic,
neurosis > neurotic, episode > episodic, nose > nostril,... minute
(“maϊniut -
miniut”) = adjective & minute
(“minit”) of hour ,....................................... In Greek writing the above phonemic variations had the names: “Prosphisis” is the name given to the suffix, the addition of a phthong, vowel or
consonant, in the word, f.e.: λέ(γ)ω,εις,, (ν)οικοκυρά,..... “Aphomiosis” is the name given to the simulation, the omission (subtraction) of a
consonant from the rest continuous at a word (in this case doubling the
following added consonant): γράφω > γρά(φ)-μα > γράμμα, γραμματική..
(grammar), κόβω > κόβμα > κόμμα (comma), συν-μαθητής > συμμαθητής,... “Syntmisis” is the name
given to the abbreviation, the subtraction of a central (esoteric) vowel: σ(ι)τάρι, κορ(υ)φή,... “Ιotakismos”
is the name given to the change (trope) of vowel a e o u at vowel jot [ι] = orthographically ι, υ, η, υι, ει, οι: αθρόω > αθροίζω, πένης > πείνα, πόνος
> ποινή, χρέματα > χρήματα, πλέον > πλήθος... Similarly in Latin: in – statuo > institute, facio - perficio, , caedo
- occido,.. Synaeresis (For more see “dialytica”) Synizisis (Greek
“συνίζηση”) is called the pronunciation of two vowels not making a diphthong as
one syllable, the depression (pronounce together, note separately). It’s
happens only if the first vowel is the phthong [ι] = the letter ι = η
= υ = οι = υι = ει: ποιους & ποί-ους,
μί-α & μια, δύ-ο & δυο.... The phthong [ι] (= the letters υ
η
ι
οι
υι
ει in the Greek writing) before other vowel phthong is sometimes short
and another time long, e.g. in Greek: ποί-ους (two syllables) & ποιους
(one syllable). The above short (contraction, depression) pronunciation of the phthong
[i] is called synizhisis and it is take place to abbreviate or for
differential acceptation of the word, e.g.: ά-δεια (2 syllables, means empty) & ά-δει-α (3 syllables, permission) (See in English the words “shark, use”.., which are pronounced “sιάrκ, ghιuζ”
and the words “Seeable, In the Greek writing: a) With accent marc on the letter: ι = υ = η = οι = ει = υι, we pronounce the word in two syllables, with expanded, long time
pronunciation the phthong [ι], i.e.: μί-α, δύ-ο, ποί-ος, ποί-α, ποί-ο, ποί-οι, ποί-ων, ποί-α, βί-α... b) Without accent marc on the letter ι
= υ = η = οι = ει
υι, we pronounce the word in one syllable, with contracted, shortly time
pronunciation the phthong [ι], i.e.: μια, δυο, ποιος, ποια, ποιο.... για, πια.. But:
βι-ά-ζομαι & βιά-ζομαι, ά-δει-α & ά-δεια, επιπλοποιός, υιός >
γιός.... Systole The phthong [ι] (= the letters υ
η
ι
οι
υι
ει in the Greek writing) before consonant sometimes pronounce shortly,
e.g: άχυρο > άχjρο,
κυμάς > kjμάς.. |
|
CHAPTER 3nd FALSIES FOR
GREEK LANGUAGE &
WRITING 1. The falsies for the different ancient Greek
Language and for Greek historical writing According
to a medieval point of view expressed by Dutch philologist Desiderius
Erasmus (1457 – 1) The
New Greek write in the way their forefathers were once used to write speak.
They write in the ancient way (the ancient pronounce), but their
pronunciation is different (the pronounce of today). 2) The
ancient Greek language is different (variant) compared to the modern one
because the ancient Greek contained the phthongs (sound, voice of words) ω, η, υ, which have
survived in the modern Greek writing traditionally and historically! Beginning the Erasmus from the thought that the
ancient Greeks it was not possible they begin the writing with a lot of
points (letters of alphabet) for same sound (phthong) of the word, e.g. the
letters Y and I for the sound [ι], the letters O and Ω for the sound [o] etc led from now on
error conclusion: (I) The
writing of new Greeks (and the writings with the Latin characters, because
imitate the writing of ancient Greeks) is historical, because it maintains
from habit the letters Ω, Η, Υ… E.g.: τιμώ, καλώ … while they
ceased represent sounds of Greek language, because they coincided with the
accent of O, I, (II) The
ancient Greek language was different from news, because: a)
ancient contained also the sounds of words that was written with letters Ω,
Η, Υ, where the
letter Η
pronounced as long [ε], that is to say until two extended [εε], The
letter Ω
pronounced as long [ο],
that is to say until two extended [oo ] and Y as [u ]. For the himself the
clusters: AI EI YI OY AY EY IY, HY…. pronounced as shows their digits, that
is to say: AI = [ a-i ], EI = [ e-i ], YI = [ o-i ], OY = [ o-i], AY = [ au
], EY = [ eu ], HY = [ eeu ]….. b) the
doubly similar letters mm, nn, ss,... pronounced and the two and not only the
one where pronounce today, c) the
letters d, b, g pronounced as "nt, mp, nk/g" and no until today. Pronunciation of ancient Greek words, according to the Erasmus: γεωργία (agriculture) =
"geoorgja" and no "gheorghίa", Ευρώπη ( It is
marked that: 1. The
above-mentioned opinion of Erasmus caused then reaction in very a lot of
scholars, Greeks and foreigners, as in Κλέωνα Ραγκαβή (Kl.
Ragavi) in the German (Vavaro) 2.
Above-mentioned Erasmus opinion (aspect), even if it is error, was imported
in the schools of west the 16th century and is in effect up to today. The above opinion of Erasmus is wrong,
because: A) Historical writing is the writing with the Latin
characters (English, Dutch, France etc) and not the Greek. In these writings we write many words like
in Greek or Latin and not according to a writing system, for examples: Greek:
πρόβλημα, τιτάν(ας), Γεωργία, Ευρώπη, ιδέα, τυπώ(νω), φωτοτυπία, νέο, Ολυμπιακός,
φιλοσοφία, τηλέφωνο...... & English: problem (“πρόμπλεμ»), titan(«ταϊταν»),
George
(«τζόρτζια»), Europe
(«γιούροπ»), idea
(«αϊντία»), type («τάϊπ»), prototype , new, Olympia philosophy, telephone,... Latin: cluba (κλούμπα -κλούβα), cupa (κούπα), & English: club («κλάμπ»), cup («κάπ»), America, plus («πλας»), imperial («ιμπίριαλ»), line («λάϊν»), double ("ντάμπλ"), gates (γκέϊτς) B) In
ancient Greek language there are the same phthongs (= sounds of words) as in
modern. Simple in Greek writing, old and modern, there are homophone (same
sound, same voice) letters, the letters: o
& ω = (o), ε & αι = [ ε], η & υ & ι & ει & οι & υι = [ι]..., and each word is written with one of these
homophones letters according to its etymology (= according to its part of
speech, form of word: gender, number, case... and derivation or composition)
on the one hand in order to establish (help) its meaning and on the other to
distinguish the homophone (same sounds)
words, i.e.: καλώ & καλό, κουτί & κουτή & κουτοί, φύλο & φύλλο,... Rules:
The
verbs are writing with –ω: σήκω, καλώ, φοιτώ, λέγω... The
adverbs with –ω(ς): καλώς, κακώς... παρακάτω, άνω, κάτω… The
females with –η: Καλή, κακή, Νίκη, νίκη... The
males with –ο: Καλός, κακός, Νίκος... The
neutrals with –ο,ι: σύκο, κακό, ελαφρό... τυρί, φιλί... ,.............. Phonetic (oral speech):
“kalό,
sίko, άporo, άdhiko..... & Writing with the Greek writing: καλ-ό,
σύκ-ο, άπορ-ο, άδικ-ο,... (the neutrals are writing at ending with letter –ο ) &
καλ-ώ, σήκ-ω, απορ-ώ, αδικ-ώ,... (the verbs are writing at ending with
letter -ω) In
Greek writing, if you see a written word with the letter –ω (at the ending),
it is mean that this word is verb: καλ-ώ,είς... With the letter -o = neuter: καλ-ό, σύκο.., with the
letter -η =
masculine: καλ-ή, καλ-ής..... In
examining the words we notice that many of them are homophones (similar
voice, same sound words) which was caused by either phonological variation or
their mutations in time and on inflection (because of homophonic endings): καλ(έ)-ω > καλώ, καλ(έ)-εις > καλείς, καλ(έ)-ει > καλεί...
(= verb, ρήμα) & καλός, καλή, καλό (= adjective, επίθετο ) & καλός
> καλοί (plural)... Moreover
in examining these same sound words, we notice that they do not belong to the
same kind of speech or gender or form of the words. In
addition, the Greek writing have for some phthongs more letters than one (see
o & ω, η & υ & ι...), so that by
writing some parts of speech or types (gender, case etc) of the words with
some homophone letters on the one hand and with the rest on the other hand
for suggestion. In that way we distinguish between the same sound words and
find help in the analysis and discovering the meaning of a word. For
instance: Phonetically: “καλός, καλί, καλίς, καλό…..” = In Greek writing (Orthographically): καλώ, καλείς, καλεί...
(With –ω, if it
is verb) καλό, καλή, καλής, ...
(With – ο,η, if
it is adjective) καλώς (With –ως, if it is adverb) & καλός (with –ος
if it is adjective) καλή (With –η, if it is singular) &
καλοί (with –οι,
if it is plural) Same:
“ίλι” = ύλη & ίλη & ήλοι & είλη, “ίδι” = είδη & ήδη &
Ίδη, «λίπι» = λύπη & λείπει & λίπη, «φίλο» = φίλο & φύλο &
φύλλο, «λίρα»= λίρα & λύρα, «κουτί» = κουτί & κουτοί & κουτή... The
examples above show us that whenever there are no the homophone letters, we
are not able to know what we write.
Because of the same sound words we are not able to distinguish whether
a words is noun or verb, male or female, plural or singular.... 3) If
the new (modern) Greek writing were historical, then: a) The
Greek words are always written with the same letters (as it happen in English
writing), however such something does not happen, see: Ancient (αρχαία): τιμάω, φάος, κόνις, πυρία, Ελλάς,
ανθέει, δένδρον… = modern (νέα):
τιμώ, φως, σκόνη, σπύρτα, Ελλάς, ανθεί, δέντρο… b) In a
lot of written words would exist dimension between accent and writing, as it
happens in the English for example historical writing. That is to say they
would be presented the phenomenon for the same letter we have very a lot of
or different accents or with a letter we depict different sounds of the
words, however such something it does not happen, see eg that in the words: καλή, σοφή, ώρα, θεός, συν, σφαίρα, θείος… (= good
(woman), wise man, hour, god, plus, ball, uncle…) the letters o,ω pronounce always
[o], the letter ε,αι always ε…. On the
contrary, see eg in English: ιδέα > idea (=
accent "αίntία"), Ευρώπη > Europe
(accent "ghjou'rop"), go (“nko-u”), doc (“ntok”),
come (“kam”), one (“oua'n”)…... where, and as we see here, the letters they
are always one and alone accent, but many, depending on the word (see eg that
the letter o pronounce when oou, when o, when a, when oua' ...). Naturally
in the Greek writing the tow digits letters: oυ, ει, υι, αι they have always also these
the this accent in all the written speech: καλοί, σφαίρα, καλεί, υιός, ποίοι… (= good, does
ball, call, son…) and various from diphthongs (= two phtongs, two sounds
of words): οϋ, εϊ, οϊ, υϊ, αϊ: προϋπόθεση, θεϊκός, δυϊκός, Μάϊος, ευνοϊκός… We
remind that: a) In
the Greek writing the homophones letters (= these with which we suggest with
rules the etymology of words) are other of one only digit: o and ω, η and ι... and
other of two digits: ει and οι,υι…
And this for technical (comprehension, etymologycal)
reasons, as we saw in the book "Τhe Greek system of writing", A. Krasana'ki. b) The
diphthongs are distinguished by the two digits letters with the “διαλυτικά» (diaresis, resolvents
marks) and the accentual mark: παϊδάκια, δυϊκός, ολόϊδιος, θεϊκός, Μάιος.. (τα: αϊ, εϊ, οϊ.. = diphthong,
two sounds of word) & παιδάκια, θείος… (τα: αι, ει.. = two digits
letters), orthographic points that do not exist in the Latin writing so that
the linguists of this writing tangle the diphthongs with the two digits
letters and say error things (as that: αι, oι, υι… pronounced before as α-ι, ο-ι, ου-ι…, ..), something
that parrot, impermissible, and the current Greek linguists. 4) If in
the ancient Greek the letter ω pronounced as
oo, the letter η as εε…,
then: a) The words eg: .:
πλοίαρχοι, ανθρώπιναι, παράγωγη.. it would not be
supposed they had accentual mark there that has, but a syllable below, after
it is not possible is stressed word above from pro parali'gousa (= second syllable
from final syllable). Then this short and long y that
pronounced? . b) Why
exist the: εε, αα, ιι… in the words: νέες & νήες, ευυπόληπτος, πλέετε, Αθηνά & Αθηνάα, μνάα, Αβραάμ, Ααρών, περιίσταμαι, διίσταμαι, διισχυρίσθη, διισχυρίσατο, έπλεε, ποιέεις, πειέει, ποίεε, ποιέετε, Ετεοκλέες,.., προορίζω, πρόοδος, προοίμιο.....; See and
that charm of these and unanimous o & ω, η &
υ.... we
have help in the etymology of words in writing:: πρώτος & προ-ορίζω (with the two
oo, we understand that we have complex word), δια, διάφορος & διίσταμαι
(with the two ιι we understand that we have complex word), 5) If
the letters H and I and EI… in the ancient season they differed in the accent
or if e.g. two digits letter EI pronounced as εϊ,… as says the Erasmus, then: a) Why
ancient they said ορθογραφία (=
correct - spelling) and no ορθοφθογγία (=
correct sounding) b) Why
the letters Η, Ω before the
5th/4th century before Christ doesn’t exist in the signs of c) The
Plato ("Kraty'los") in one hand it wouldn't search it finds why
does happen this and in other hand it would not say what it says, that is to
say that letter H him we put instead I, when the thing is something long, the
letter I him puts instead the H when the thing is something small'…. as well
as that letter E in the word ΠΟΣΕΙΔΩΝ (=
Neptune) has entered perhaps for decency, hence is not read etc.: «Τω δε αυ
ιώτα προς τα λεπτά πάντα, α δη μάλιστα δια πάντων ιοι αν. Δια ταύτα το
<<ιέναι>> και το <<ιεσθαι>> δια του ιώτα απομιμείται….. Το δε αυ άλφα τω
<<μεγάλω>> απέδωκε και τω
<<μήκει>> το ήτα, ότι μεγάλα τα γράμματα. Εις δε το <<γογγύλον >>
του ου δεόμενος σημείου τούτο πλείστον αυτω εις
το όνομα ανεκέρασεν. (Κρατύλος 426 - 427 ), «Ποσειδώνα, το δε ε έγκειται
ίσως ευπρεπείας ένεκα» (Κρατύλος 402 e) 2. The falsies for Phoenician or Egyptian generation of Greek Alphabet
A. Ancient Greek
author Plato says that hear in Due to
it’s (after the text of Plato) to day some people say
that the Greeks took his alphabet from Egyptians, something is not correct, because: a)
The above myth says that the Egyptians
discover the Egyptian letters, not the Greek. The Greek letters are another
story, a story with same linguistic theme. b)
The icons of Greek letters, the amount of
Greek letters and the mechanism of Greek writing system are entirely
different from Egyptian, as we see later. c)
The amount of Egyptian letters and the
mechanism of Egyptian writing system are entirely same with Phoenician,
Hebrew, Arabic … writing systems. The different is only at the icons of the
letters. B. Ancient Greek
author Herodotus says that according to his opinion (“opinion” not inquiry
with evidences) the Greeks took the alphabet from the Phoenicians. He say exactly: «Οι
δε Γεφυραιοι, των ήσαν οι φονέες
οι Ιππάρχου, ως μεν αυτοί λέγουσι,
εγεγόνεσαν εξ Ερετρίης την αρχήν, ως δε εγώ αναπυνθανόμενος ευρίσκω, ήσαν Φοίνικες των συν Κάδμω
απικομένων Φοινίκων … Οι δε Φοίνικες ούτοι, οι συν Κάδμω απικόμενοι, των ήσαν
οι Γεφυραιοι, άλλα τε πολλά οικίσαντες ταύτην την χώρην εσήγαγον διδασκαλία
ες τους Έλληνες και δη τα γράμματα ……………>> (Ηρόδοτος, Tερψιχόρη 57 - 59) In
English: The
Gephyraei, to whom the two men who killed Hipparchus belonged, came, by their
own account, originally from Eretria; but i suppose, I have myself looked into the matter and find that
they were really Phoenicians, descendants of those who came with Cadmus to
what is now Boeotia where they were allotted the district of Tanagra to make
their homes in. After the expulsion of the Cadmeans by the Argiva, the
Gephyraei were expelled by the Boeotians and took refuge in Athens, where
they were received into the community on certain stated terms, which excluded
them from a few privileges not worth mentioning here……. The Phoenicians who came with Cadmus - amongst whom were the Gephyraei -
introduced into Indeed,
even today many foreign peoples use this material. In the Due to it’s someone’s having said that the letters
of Greek alphabet are made up by Phoenicians and the ancient These
alls are wrong, mistake, because: 1) The
Phoenician and Egyptian writing systems are entirely different from the
Greek.The Greek writing in
one hand has letters for all phthongs (sound of words), for all consonants
and for all vowels and in other hand has (there are) homophone vowels
letters: O & , H & Y & I… by which we suggest (using them by
grammatical rules) the etymology (part of speech, gender, number etc) of
words or distinguishing the homophone words, e.g.: λίρα & λύρα, καλό & καλώ... καλό (with –o = good, adjective) & καλώ (= I cal, verb) The
Phoenician and the The Phoenician and Egyptian letters aleph, ayin,
yont = two sounds: αα, ουου, ii, as in words: Αβραάμ
(Abraham), Ισαάκ (Isaac), διίσταμαι… The Phoenician and Egyptian consonant letters:
beth, gimel, daleth = two sounds: mp, nk, nt, Long and sort vowels there are not in Greek
writing. The Greek letters alpha, ου, Iota (άλφα, ου, ιώτα) = one sound α, ου/u, ι. The letters βήτα, γάμα, δέλτα = one sound: β, γ, δ. The
Phoenician and Egyptian alphabets had letters for consonants
sounds as the Greek alphabet, but it did not mean anything, because in one
hand and according to ancient writers Dosiades, Plato etc consonant letters
are founded and in senior writings (ancient Egyptian writing, ancient Cretan
writing, Cuneiform writing etc) and in other hand the letters of
Phoenician and Egyptian alphabets had shame (are pictures) of animals, men
etc (Aleph= the picture; beth = house etc) and the letters of
Greek alphabet are pictures of pronunciations organs (lips, mouth, tongue
etc) each sound: α, β, γ.. 2)
According to the ancient Greek writer Plutarch (see the book «Κακοήθειες Ηροδότου»), Gephyraiei, Cadmus (= the
founder of a) The
people of Theba went by the part of Persians and non by part of the Greeks in
Persian – Greek war. b)
Gephyraei (or the democratic brothers Armodius and Aristogeiton = the killers
of tyrannous Ipparchus etc) was by the part of democratic people in <<Τους δε Θηβαίους πρώτον μεν φησι «μετά των Ελλήνων εόντας μάχεσθαι υπ’ ανάγκης εχόμενους»… αποσχισθέντες οι
Θηβαίοι χείρας τε προέτειναν και ήσον των βαρβάρων, λέγοντες τον αληθέστατον
των λόγων, ως μήδισαν και γη και ύδωρ έδοσαν βασιλεί, υπό δ’ ανάγκης εχόμενοι
εις Θερμοπύλας… Ειτ΄ ου
δηλ`ος εστιν ιδιαν τινά προς Θηβαίους έχων οργήν και δυσμένειαν, υφ’ ης ου
μόνο διέβαλε ψευδώς και αδίκως την πόλιν, αλλ ουδέ του πιθανού της διαβολής εφρόντισεν, ουδ όπως αυτός εαυτω τα αναντια λέγων παρ’ ολίγους
ανθρώπους ου φανειται συνειδώς;>>
(865, β) Ειτ΄ ου δηλ`ος
εστιν ιδιαν τινά προς Θηβαίους έχων οργήν και δυσμένειαν, υφ’ ης ου μόνο
διέβαλε ψευδώς και αδίκως την πόλιν, αλλ ουδέ του πιθανού της διαβολής εφρόντισεν, ουδ όπως αυτός εαυτω τα αναντια λέγων παρ’ ολίγους
ανθρώπους ου φανειται
συνειδώς;>> (Plutarch, Kakoithies by Herodotus 865, β) 3) According to the
Aristotle the killers of tyrannous Ipparchus was not Phoenicians (not the Gephyraei), but Greeks, the democratic
brothers Armodius and Aristogeiton, and for that the Athenians made celebrates on his
honor: <<…..διατίθησι δ'
αγώνα τον επιτάφιον, και τοις τελευτηκόσιν εν τω πολέμω και Αρμόδιω και
Αριστογείτονι εναγίσματα ποιε…>> (Αθηναίων
Πολιτεία, Κεφ. ΚΑ' "Οι
εννέα
άρχοντες). 4) According to Andokithes, killers of tyrannous
Ipparchus were not Phoenicians (not the Gephyraei), but Greeks, the
democratic brothers Armodius and Aristogeiton, and for that the Athenians
made celebrates on his honor, see: Εδοξε τη βουλη καί τω δημω..... Εάν τις δημοκρατίαν καταλύη τήν Αθήνησιν..... Εάν δέ τις κτείνων τινά τούτων αποθάνη ή επιχειρών, ευ ποιήσω αυτόν τε καί τούς παιδας τούς
εκείνου καθ άπερ Αρμόδιον τε καί Αριστογείτονα καί τούς απογόνους
αυτών... (Ανδοκίδης, "Περί των μυστηρίων" 96 - 98) 5)
According to the ancient Greek writers Euripides, Aeschylus etc on one hand
the Cadmus (= the founder of Thebes) and
his ascendants (Eteoclees, Polinicis, Oedipus etc) was not Phoenicians, but Greeks, they spoken Greek etc and on the
other hand the ancient land of Phoenicia (where was Master Aginor, from where
came from Cadmus and established the town of Thebes, from where came the
prince Europe etc) was a island on Europe, in western part of
Greece and of Italy, in the Turrinian sea and not a land in Asia <<… Κάδμος ηνίκ’ ήλθε γην τήνδ’ εκλιπών Φοίνισαν εναλία χθόνα…..>>
(Ευριπίδη, Φοίνισσαι 1- 10) Τύριον οιδμα λιπουσ' εβαν ακροθίνια
Λοξία Φοινίσσας από νάσου Φοίβω δούλα μελάθρων, ιν' υπό
δειράσι νιφοβόλοις Παρνασσου
κατενάσθη, Ιόνιον κατά πόντον ελάτα πλεύσασα περιρρύτω υπέρ ακαρπίστων πεδίων Σικελίας Ζεφύρου πνοαις ιππεύσαντος, εν ουρανω κάλλιστον
κελάδημα. πόλεος εκπροκριθεισ' εμας καλλιστεύματα Λοξία Καδμείων εμολον γαν κλεινων Αγηνοριδαν
ομογενεις επί Λάϊου πεφθεισ' ενθάδε πύργους.... (Ευριπίδης, Φοίνισσαι
210-220) «Θήβας πυρώσας τάσδε Πολυνείκης Θεοις ασπίδας
εθηκε; μηδέποτ', ω τέκνον, κλέος τοιόνδε σοι γένοιθ' υφ' Ελλήνων λαβειν»..
(Ευριπίδης, Φοίνισσαι 580) «ξέναι γυναίκες, είπατ΄, εκ ποίας πάτρας Ελληνικοισι δώμασιν πελάζετε;» (Ευριπίδης,
Φοίνισσαι 278 279) «Κάδμος εμολε τάνδε γαν Τύριος, ω τετρασκελής μόσχος αδάματον πέσημα...
(Ευριπίδης, Φοίνισσαι 640-670) « Ω γης
Ελλάδος στρατηλάτες Δαναω
άριστης, οιπερ ηλθατ΄ ενθάδε, Κάδμου τε
λαός, μήτε Πολυνείκους χάριν.. (Ευριπίδης, Φοίνισσαι 1220 -12230) « σφυρών σιδηρα κέντρα διαπείρας μέσον΄ όθεν νιν Ελλάς ωνόμαζεν Οιδίπους (Ευριπίδης, Φοίνισσαι 26-29) «Ω Ζευ τε κα`ι Γη και Πολιουχοι θεοί, Αρα τ' Εριν`υς πατρός η μεγασθενής, μή μοι πόλιν γε πρυμνόθεν πανώλεθρον εκθαμνίσητε
δηάλωτον, Ελλάδος φθόγγον
χέουσαν, και δόμους εφεστίους, ελευθέραν δε γην τε και Κάδμου πόλιν ζεύλησι
δουλίησι μήποτε σχεθείν»...
(Αισχύλος, Επτά επί Θήβας 69-80) 6) As
nowadays we write some Greek words with Greek and Latin characters the same
was in ancient times in Theba with the Phoenician and Greek Characters 7) According to Dosiades (ancient writer) the letters
are made up from Cretans: "Δοσιάδης δε εν Κρήτη φησίν ευρεθήναι αυτά (τα γράμματα)… (Διόδωρος, Ε. Μπέκερ,
"Ελλ. Ανέκδοτα" ΙΙ 783,14). Something that perhaps is correct if we speak
generally for the inventor of letters and not especially for the inventor of
to day Greek alphabet. 8) According to Diodoros
Siceliotis, Phoenicians are not inventors of letters, but Pelasgians (ancestors
of Greeks). Simple Phoenicians transformer (change schema of) the letters: «…φασίν τους Φοίνικας ουκ εξ αρχής ευρείν, αλλά τους τύπους των γραμμάτων μεταθείναι μόνον…». (Διόδωρος, Σικελιώτης, βίβλος 5, 74 ). Something that perhaps is correct if we speak generally for the
inventor of letters and not especially for the inventor of to day Greek
alphabet. Diodoros Siceliotis say exactly (in new Greek): <<Στους
Έλληνες λέγεται ότι πρώτος ανακάλυψε τους ρυθμούς και το τραγούδι ο Λίνος και
όταν ο Κάδμος έφερε από τη Φοινίκη τα λεγόμενα γράμματα, πρώτος αυτός
μετέφερε στην ελληνική γλώσσα, όρισε την ονομασία του καθενός και χάραξε το
σχήμα τους. Γενικώς όλα μαζί τα γράμματα ονομάστηκαν φοινικικά, επειδή
μεταφέρθηκαν στους Έλληνες από τους Φοίνικες, ειδικά όμως, επειδή πρώτοι οι Πελασγοί
χρησιμοποίησαν τους φερόμενους χαρακτήρες προσαγορεύτηκαν Πελασγικά……. Ο Λίνος, λοιπόν, λένε πως συνέταξε με Πελασγικά γράμματα αφήγημα με
τις πράξεις του πρώτου Διόνυσου και τους λοιπούς μύθους και το άφησε στα απομνημονεύματά
του. Με τον ίδιο τρόπο χρησιμοποίησαν τα Πελασγικά γράμματα ο Ορφέας και ο
Προναπίδης, που ήταν δάσκαλος του Ομήρου και εμπνευσμένος τραγουδοποιός. Το
ίδιο και ο Θυμοίτης…. (Διόδωρος Σικελιώτης, βίβλος 3, 67) Οι Ηλιάδες ( = οι
αρχαίοι κάτοικοι της Ρόδου) αναδείχθηκαν ανώτεροι από όλους στη μόρφωση και
κυρίως στην αστρονομική. Εισηγήθηκαν πολλά σχετικά με τη ναυτιλία και όρισαν
τον χωρισμό της ημέρας σε ώρες….. Ο (Ρόδιος) Ακτίς βάζοντας πλώρη για την
Αίγυπτο ίδρυσε εκεί τη λεγόμενη Ηλιούπολη, δίνοντας το όνομα του πατέρα του
(Ήλιου). Από αυτόν έμαθαν αργότερα οι Αιγύπτιοι τα θεωρήματα της αστρονομίας.
Όταν, όμως, έγινε ο
κατακλυσμός στην Ελλάδα, από τις βροχοπτώσεις χάθηκαν οι περισσότεροι
άνθρωποι. Μαζί με εκείνα συνέβηκε να καταστραφούν και τα γραπτά μνημεία και
γι αυτή την αιτία, οι Αιγύπτιοι, βρίσκοντας την ευκαιρία,
ιδιοποιήθηκαν όλα τα περί αστρονομίας και επειδή, λόγω της άγνοιάς τους, οι
Έλληνες δεν μπορούσαν πλέον να επικαλεσθούν τις γραπτές μαρτυρίες, ενισχύθηκε
η άποψη ότι πρώτοι οι Αιγύπτιοι ανακάλυψαν τα άστρα. Με τον ίδιο τρόπο,
μολονότι οι Αθηναίοι ίδρυσαν πόλη στην Αίγυπτο, που την ονόμαζαν Σαίνς, το
γεγονός ξεχάστηκε λόγω του κατακλυσμού. Γι αυτές, λοιπόν, τις αιτίες πολλές γενιές αργότερα ο Κάδμος
του Αγήνορα θεωρήθηκε ότι πρώτος αυτός έφερε τα γράμματα από τη Φοινίκη στην
Ελλάδα και από τον καιρό του Κάδμου και στο εξής πίστευαν για τους Έλληνες
πως έκαναν πάντα συμπληρωματικές ανακαλύψεις στην επιστήμη των γραμμάτων,
καθώς ένα είδος καθολικής άγνοιας κατείχε τους Έλληνες……. ( Διόδωρος Σικελιώτης,
βίβλος 5, 57) Στις Μούσες, δόθηκε από τον πατέρα
τους, η ανακάλυψη των γραμμάτων και η σύνθεση των επών, η λεγόμενη ποιητική. Σε εκείνους που λένε πως οι Σύριοι είναι
οι εφευρέτες των γραμμάτων, πως οι Φοίνικες
τα έμαθαν από εκείνους και τα
παρέδωσαν στους Έλληνες και πως αυτοί
οι Φοίνικες ήταν εκείνοι που έπλευσαν με τον Κάδμο στην Ευρώπη και πως γι
αυτό οι Έλληνες ονομάζουν τα γράμματα φοινικικά, απαντούν πως οι Φοίνικες δεν
ήταν οι αρχικοί εφευρέτες και πως το μόνο που έκαναν ήταν να αλλάξουν τη
μορφή των γραμμάτων και, καθώς η πλειοψηφία των ανθρώπων τα χρησιμοποίησε
αυτό το είδος των γραμμάτων, γι αυτό τους δόθηκε η παραπάνω ονομασία…… >>
(Διόδωρος Σικελιώτης. βίβλος 5, 57)
PHOENICIAN
ALPHABET AND PHOENICIAN WRITING SYSTEM Mechanisms
of Phoenician and Egyptian (hieroglyphics) writing system are same, but entirely
different from Greek. In Phoenician and 1) We write from right to left (in Greek from
left to right) 2)
There are letters only for the consonants: p, v, f…., for long vowels (the
case of two: aa, oo, ii…) and for groups: x, b, d, g = ks, mp, nt, γκ. Long vowels are the case of
two aa, uu, ii… after from a consonant, e.g.: Abr-aa-m, Dan-ii-l, m-uu-mer, Ααρών, διίσταμαι, πλέετε… Sort vowels are the case of 5
vowels: α, ε, ο, ι, ου. In writing
there is small signs for each vowel, that putted on or down of consonant that
have vowel, but usually omitted.
In Phoenician alphabet there are 22 letters. The Phoenician and Egyptian letters: Beth, Gimel,
Daleth = two sounds of consonants, like Latin letters: mp/b, nk/g, nt/d and
different from Greek letters B, Γ, Δ = V, GH (like you), DH (like those, not as thing) = one sound of
consonants. The Phoenician and Egyptian letters aleph, ayin,
yod = two sounds: αα, oo/ουου, ii, as in words: Abr-aa-m, Dan-ii-l, m-uu-mer, Αα-ρών, δ-ιίσταμαι… and
different from Greek a, o, u, i. Long and sort vowels there are not in Greek
writing. The Greek letters α, ο, ου, ι = one
sound The
Phoenician and the The Greek writing in one hand has letters
for all phthongs (for all sound of words, for all consonants
and for all vowels) and in other hand has (there are) homophone vowels
letters: O & , H & Y & I… by which we suggest (using them by
grammatical rules) the etymology (part of speech, gender, number etc) of
words or distinguishing the homophone words, e.g.: λίρα & λύρα, καλό & καλώ... καλό (with –o = good, adjective) & καλώ (= I cal, verb) Samples of Phoenician scripts ( inscriptions, writings)
3. The
falsies for Long - short duration letters and for iconic letters According
to the Plato (See the book: "KRATYLOS") the Greek writing is
phthogical (“φθογγική” = by
each sound of the word) and at the same time iconic ( “εικονική” = by expression
of picture). The letters Ω, H, Y are parallax of the letters I, 0 for reasons
of better expression. The unanimous letters of alphabet O & Ω, H & I
& ΕΙ… there are in order to they attend in the writing apart from the
sound and the icon (picture) of that we write, in order that the reader has
apart from his sound and ocular picture of the things. We put in writing of a
word the letter I instead the letters Y, I, when the meaning from word that
we write is something thin, small and for penetration. We put the letter H
instead the I, Y when this is something long, with length. We put the letter
O instead Ω when
this is something round (circular, global) etc According to the Alexandrines grammatical
(secretaries - writers in bibliotheca of
Consequently
here we have two different opinions, with regard to which kind of
writing is the Greek writing (or the value of the letters O & Ω, Η & I Υ…), therefore is
placed the question for who finally has right? The
answer is “ No one!” And
this, because the letters O & Ω Η &
Ι … are homophones (unanimous,
same pitch, same phthong), now and always
(from their invention), that exists in the Greek writing no for the reasons
that we saw saying more before the Erasmus, the Plato etc., but for technicians,
for comprehensions (intellectual, understanding)
reasons. To suggest, by rules, on the one hand the faith sound composition of
words (we record dance floor phonetically the oral speech) and on the other
hand the etymology of words (we suggest ocular in the reader the which part
of speech, type of also production or composition it is the each word that we
write), hence as help and in their comprehension by the reader and in the discrimination
(distinguish, district ion) homophones words. That is to say is the Greek
writing of sounding (phonetic) and simultaneously etymological, after it
records from the one sound and from the other what we mean etymological.
Something that is also proved with experiment and with irrefutably documents
and arguments. See
(compare) that: 1)
With the letters. –ω, ει
we write all the verbs: καλώ, καλεί, λέγω, λέγει… (= I call, it
calls, I say…), with letters –o,ι we write all
neutral: καλό, ψωμί, τυρί… (= good,
bread,…), with letter –η we write all female that
expire in sound -ι: καλή, σοφή…, with the letters
–oι we
write all plurals of males that expire in sound –ι: καλοί, σοφοί…... See
(compare) the same sound letters ω & ο, η &
ι & υ… we distinguish
the homophones (same sound) words or we understand for which
part of speech or type we speak: καλώ (with –ω = verb)
and καλό (with
–o = surname, adjective). Similarly: κουτή & κουτοί & κουτί' (= the box),
λύρα & λίρα…
Compare and that when to us they say a word in order to him we write, eg the
word "αγαθι', we
ask you speak (you mean) for female noun (if thus, then we
write with chapter A, as all the main names, and with letter –η, as all the female: Aγαθ-ή, Miss Αγαθή) or speak for
singular female simple surname (if thus, then we write
only with –η as all female: αγαθή, αγαθή και καλή γυναίκα) or speak for
plural of male surname (if thus, then we write with –oι, as all the plurals
of males: αγαθοί ). See and: με
ταξί & μεταξύ, καλό & καλώ, καλοί & καλή, καλώς & καλός, οι
αδελφοί Κατσιμπόκοι" &
" η αδελφή Κατσιμπόκη",
"Της τιμημένης νεκρής" &
"Τοις τιμημένοις νεκροίς",
«οι παραγωγοί της Κρήτης» & «η παραγωγή της Κρήτης», κριτικός &
κριτικός, Είναι κριτικός & Είναι κρητικός… where, as we see, with the
unanimous letters o & ω,
η & ι & υ & ει.. we suggest in the reader
for which part of speech or type is our each written word or with them we
distinguish homophones (same sound) words. 2) If
they are absent from the written speech or if we only wrote by sounding
(without the letters o & ω, η & ι …), the reader
it doesn't have help in one hand in the etymology (comprehension) the words
and in other hand in the discrimination same sound words.
That is to say it might not distinguish when the words that we write speak
for male (arsenic) and when for female, when for singular and when for
plural, when for verb and when for noun substantive etc, eg: "καλι" = καλό & καλώ (= good and
calls), "φιλί"
= φιλί
(kiss) and φυλή
(race), "lι'pι" = λύπη
(sorrow) and λίπη
(greases) and λείπει (absent). IMPORTANT
NOTE: 1) Because (Whereas) the
Alexandrines writers did not know the reason for which the constructors of
Greek alphabet (the discovery of Greek alphabet
became between 14/13 century b.C, finally linear writing, and 9/8 century before Christ ) putted in the writing the
letters Ω, Η, Υ, that while it is with different form pronounced similarly with the letters O, I and because
in the others ancient writings (Egyptian, Phoenician, Arabic, Aramaic etc)
there are long and short vowel for this reason and the Alexandrines believed (thong) that in the ancient Greek
writing the homophone letters I & H , O & Ω….. was
for long and short vowels. 2) Those who said Plato for the unanimous letters Ω and Ο, Η and Ι & Υ… have a scientific base, only that they are in effect
as for why they have the form that has the letters and no as for why we have
more the one unanimous letters for certain sounds of word, that is to say O
and Ω, Η and Υ or Ι… The inventor of Greek alphabet instead he puts accidental
letters (symbols), as made the other alphabets (see Hebrew, cuneiform etc),
put what has, that is to say devised makes the form of letters according to
what says the Plato (the letter O = round, letter I = small etc), in order
that in the writing is attributed also other meanings, what says the Plato.
Wise men ancient Greek grammatical. (More for the
opinions of Plato, as well as why have the letters the forms that have, see:
"Τhe Greek system of writing", A. Krasana'kis) OBSERVATION: 1. Because
at the production, composition and transport of word in other language (or in
dialect) the sound E as well as the cluster of EE, convert (change) in I,
that is written orthographically with H instead I (this in one hand for
indication of sound passion and in other hand if we speak for bending or
verb, noun or abject etc), eg: .: έθος > ηθική (λατινική
ethiki), Ετεοκλέες (Αντιγόνη) > Ετεοκλής,,
χρέματα > χρήματα, πλέον > πλήθος, Μνεσίθεος > Μνησίθεος..., for this reason
and believed from the Erasmus and his partisans that the letter H pronounced
before as extended (long) e, that is to say as EE. 2. Because
the sound U is not reported in the Greek alphabet (it is not reported because
is written with two digits, that is to say OY, therefore is reported the
digits him O + Y = OY) and in Latin the sound this is written with the letter
U(u) that resembles with the Greek letter Y(υ), for this and believed from the Erasmus
and his partisans that the letter Y(υ) pronounced before as u or o-u. However
that it resembles he is not same. 3.
Because the letter Ω(ω) enters instead the
letter (o) in the synaeresis of: oo, αο: νόος – νως ή νους, τιμαόμενος > τιμώμενος, ....., for
indication of this passion, for this and believed from
the Erasmus and his partisans that this before pronounced as extended (long)
O, that is to say as OO. . 4.
Because the two NN (nn), KK (kk)... in certain words they emanate from
composition (e.g.: εκ-κλησις > εκκλησία), for this and
believed from the Erasmus and his partisans that also the
two digits similar double: MM(mm) LL(ll).... pronounced before. However this
is error, because: a) Two
similar consonants (mm, nn..) in a word (if they even emanate from
composition, e.g.: συν-νομος, εν-ράπτω…) it can
pronounced and the two only if the word is cut in two and pronounced until
two, with two tons (accent), e.g.: παρέκ-κλήσιο…
Something that does not become in the Greek language minus only in idioms
accents of Italian: prattico ("pra't-tj'ko"), statj'co
("sta't-tj'ko"), phonetic ("fo'n-netj'k)... b) The
doubly similar letters mm nn... enter compatible (technically, with orthographic
rules) in the sounds passion of assimilation (afomiosis, αφομοίωσης), for reminder
of this passion, e.g.: : π,β,φ + μ = μμ, ν + ν,λ,ρ,μ = νν,λλ,ρρ,μμ: συ(ν)-μαθητής > συμμαθητής, συν-ράπτω > συρράπτω, παν-λαϊκός > παλλαϊκός, εν-νομος > έννομος,.. οπή - ό(π)μα > όμμα > μάτι, κόβω -κό(β)μα > κόμμα,
γράφω - γρά(φ)μα > γράμμα... c) The consonants
pronounced never with other consonant or alone them, but always with a vowel,
where also their name = σύν-φωνα
("con-voice, sonar"). Consonant with conform (with other consonant)
pronounced together only if does exist vowel and the one from the two consonant
is semivowel or not voiceless – the reason
that we do not see in the words combinations as βφ, τχ, τβ, βχ…. 5.
Because the letters δ, β, γ do not exist in
the Latin alphabet (does not exist, because sound that represents suggest
with letter th, v, y and with somehow strange way, see e.g. in English: jot
& yatagan, then & thin…) and because the clusters nt, mp, g/nk
many words change in sounds: d b g, e.g.:
γκαρίζω - γ(κ)άϊδαρος > γάιδαρος, μπογιατζής > Βογιάτζης, Graecia – γραικός, συγγραφέας > συγ(γ)ραφέας…. for this and
believed from the Erasmus and his partisans that the letters δ, β, γ before pronounced as
ντ(d) μπ (b) γγ(g). 6.
Because the two digits letters: αι, υι, οι, ου they resemble
with the diphthongs αϊ, υϊ, οϊ, οϋ and because
certain ancient Greek words that contain diphthongs have changed today accent
because sound of words affections (passion) and
however are written again with the same precisely letters, e.g.: γάία – γαία, ομόϊος > όμοιος, θέϊος > θείος…, for this and
the Erasmus with his partisans they believed that the Greek writing is
historical. Naturally these words can be written again with similar letters,
however now without dialytica or with
placement of accentual mark in different letter, e.g. Ομόϊος > όμοιος…. Always in the
Greek writing, in the words that changes their accent, changes or the letters
their or orthographic marks (the new accent she appears - it is indicated with
the abstraction of dialytica or with the placement of accentual mark, old the
circumflex, in the second vowel etc), see e.g.: γάϊα > γαία, θέίος > θείος.. You do not
occupy - it was careful these the Erasmus, because so much the dialytica
what the different accentual
marks they do not exist in their Latin writing. |
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CHAPTER 4nd THE VALUE AND WORLD-WIDE CONTRIBUTION OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND SYSTEM OF WRITING 1. Reasons for which the Greek language and the Greek system of writing should
once again become international and the official protocol of the European
Union. |
|
The Greek language and
the Greek system of writing, as evidenced by scientific sources, a watershed
event not only in the history of Western civilization with the Greek’s
invention of the alphabet and their system of writing, but also constitute the means of precise
expression by the creative human mind and spirit during mankind’s initial
great moments in the development of civilization and simultaneously comprise
the foundation, base and support for all other European languages. Specifically, the Greek
language is of fundamental importance to the languages and cultures of the
world, not only because it captured and recorded the most cultivated and philosophical
thought of the ancient world, but also because it is the base and support not
only of the modern Greek language, but also of a whole list of others, such
as Latin and the so called Latin-based languages (Italian, English, French,
etc.). There is no language today that does not contain Greek words or
derivatives of Greek words, and that is why it is considered the “mother
of all languages”. While the people of the world in translating the
ancient Greek writings (arts & science, literary, philosophy, epics,
poetry, etc.), they imported into their own languages apart from the Greek
intellectuality and thought many Greek words as well. Innumerable is the
Greek vocabulary that is found in the international arena of languages and
dialects. For example, it is estimated that the international English
language (i.e., English used globally) contains today in excess of 50,000
words of Greek origin, for example: Greek:
Ευρώπη, αλφάβητο, γραμματική, συλλαβή, δίφθογγοι, Άγγελος, Βίβλος,
βιβλιογραφία, διάλογος, Εθνικός, Φαντασία, Γεωγραφία, Ιστορία, είδωλο,
Χιλιόμετρο, φιλοσοφία… English:
Also, the
Greek alphabet is of fundamental importance to the world-wide art of writing
and culture, not only because it captured and precisely recorded the most
cultivated and philosophical thought of the ancient world, which today guides
us, as linguist Charles Higounet very rightly observes and remarks, but also
and not only because it is the base of the modern Greek art of writing, but
also because of a whole list of other writings, such as writings with Latin
characters (English, Italian, French, German, etc.), the Slavic writings
(Bulgarian, Russian, etc.), as we will see below, consequently the largest
percentage of current writings. The Greek language and the Greek scriptures
are responsible for the birth and development of science and the arts. The
Greeks were the first to discover and implement the simple but perfect system
of writing, as we will see below, consequently having the capability to not
only easily record their experiences, but also by studying them at a later
time, they progressed and became first in the letters, arts and sciences:
Homer, Hesiod, Herodotus, Thucydides, Heracletus, Democritus, Plato,
Aristotle, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, and….and…and… The first texts of
Mathematics, Physics, Astronomy, Law, Medicine, History, Linguistics, etc.,
were written in the Greek language and alphabet. The first theatrical works
(plays), as well as the Byzantine literary works have been written in the
Greek language. The Greek language and
Greek writing system were spread internationally first during the period of
Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic period that followed. They were also
used extensively during the Roman and Byzantine empires, while many Roman
men, the aristocracy and well to do citizenry came to The Greek language and
the Greek alphabet are those that the most known ancient religions were
written and then spread throughout the world. That is to say, that of the
Olympian gods and Christianity (New Testament). Most Apostles: Paul, John,
Lukas, etc….Just as, many Hebrews had gotten a Greek education, knew the
Greek language and alphabet and for that reason they wrote the Gospels
directly in Greek for the purpose of making them known throughout the world. Also, the New Testament
became known throughout the world after its translation from Hebrew into
Greek. The Greek language and
Greek scriptures are those that helped in the decipherment of many of the
ancient writings. This happened, because during the period of Alexander The
Great and the Hellenistic period that followed, the Greek language and
alphabet were international and many signs, name plates, columns, tombs,
etc., were in scripted bilingually, i.e., the column of Rosette in Greek and
Egyptian, the epigram ‘Rampad’ in Alep in Greek, Syriac and Arabic, the
epigram ‘Arran’ in Aouran in Greek and Arabic, etc. In regard to the value of the Greek Language: The Roman statesman and
philosopher Cicero said that if the gods spoke they would use the Greek language. Gaita, the German writer
and philosopher, said that he had heard the Gospel in various languages;
however, when he heard it in Greek it seemed as if the Moon had appeared in
the sky. The French Academician
and Poet Claude Fauriel (1772-1844) said that the Greek language assembles
the wealth and homogeneity of the German language, the clarity of French, the
beauty of Spanish and the musicality of Italian. The famous blind American
writer Ellen Keller compared the preciseness and perfection of expression of
the human thought in the Greek Language with the most perfect of the musical
instruments, the violin. The French writer and
academic Margarite Yourceyar said: I loved this Greek language for its robust
plasticity, where each of its words certifies its direct and different
contact with the truths, and because whatever has been said worthy by man,
for the most part has been said in this language. The Greek poet and
academic The German poet,
historian and philosopher Schiller said: Cursed Greek, you have discovered
everything: philosophy, geometry, physics, astronomy….. You have left nothing
for us. “We are all Greeks. Our laws, our
literature, our religion, our arts, have their root in In addition to the above, the Greek Language,
alphabet and grammar, as we will further see, are nearly perfect and the easiest
of all others. Hence, for all of the above, the Greek language
and the Greek system of writing should enjoy world-wide respectability,
attention and protection and once again become international and the official
protocol of the European Union. ENGLISH SPEECHES WITH GREEK WORDS The former Prime Minister and professor
Xenophon Zolotas had given two speeches in Washington D.C. (on September 26,
1957 and on October 2, 1959), which remain memorable and characterized by the
international press as a “Linguistic Feat - Linguistic Epic! ”. The reason
for this was not only due to the content of these speeches but also due to
the language in which they were given. It is assumed that the language for
public speeches is English. In substance however, with the exception of a few
conjunctions, articles and prepositions the language is Greek. The attendees
that constituted the membership at the conference of the International
Monetary Bank for Reconstruction and Growth did not have any problem
understanding the uniqueness and magnificence of the text of the speeches
given by the Greek professor. The Speech of
September 26, 1957 Kyrie, I eulogize the archons of the Pan
ethnic Nomismatic Thesaurus and the Ecumenical Trapeza for the orthodoxy of
their axioms methods and policies, although there is an episode of cacophony
of the Trapeza with IN GREEK Κύριοι, The Speech of
October 2, 1959 Kyrie, It is Zeus' anathema on our epoch and the heresy of
our economic method and policies that we should agonize the Skylla of
numismatic plethora and the Charybdis of economic anaemia. It is not my
idiosyncrasy to be ironic or sarcastic but my diagnosis would be that
politicians are rather cryptoplethorists. Although they emphatically
stigmatize numismatic plethora, they energize it through their tactics and
practices. Our policies should be based more on economic and less on
political criteria. Our gnomon has to be a metron between economic strategic
and philanthropic scopes. In an epoch characterized by monopolies,
oligopolies, monopolistic antagonism and polymorphous inelasticities, our
policies have to be more orthological, but this should not be metamorphosed
into plethorophobia, which is endemic among academic economists. Numismatic
symmetry should not antagonize economic acme. A greater harmonization between
the practices of the economic and nomismatic archons is basic. Parallel to
this we have to synchronize and harmonize more and more our economic and
nomismatic policies panethnically. These scopes are more practicable now,
when the prognostics of the political end economic barometer are halcyonic.
The history of our didymous organization on this sphere has been didactic and
their gnostic practices will always be a tonic to the polyonymous and
idiomorphous ethnical economies. The geneses of the programmed organization
will dynamize these policies. Therefore, I sympathize, although not without
criticism one or two themes with the apostles and the hierarchy of our organs
in their zeal to program orthodox economic and nomismatic policies. I
apologize for having tyrannized you with my Hellenic phraseology. In my epilogue I emphasize my eulogy to the
philoxenous aytochtons of this cosmopolitan metropolis and my encomium to you
Kyrie, the stenographers. IN GREEK Κύριοι, Είναι "Διός ανάθεμα" στην εποχή
μας και αίρεση της οικονομικής μας μεθόδου και της οικονομικής μας πολιτικής
το ότι θα φέρναμε σε αγωνία την Σκύλλα του νομισματικού πληθωρισμού και τη
Χάρυβδη της οικονομικής μας αναιμίας. Δεν είναι στην ιδιοσυγκρασία μου να
είμαι ειρωνικός ή σαρκαστικός αλλά η διάγνωσή μου θα ήταν ότι οι πολιτικοί
είναι μάλλον κρυπτοπληθωριστές. Αν και με έμφαση στιγματίζουν τον νομισματικό
πληθωρισμό, τον ενεργοποιούν μέσω της τακτικής τους και των πρακτικών τους. Η
πολιτική μας θα έπρεπε να βασίζεται περισσότερο σε οικονομικά και λιγότερο σε
πολιτικά κριτήρια. Γνώμων μας πρέπει να είναι ένα μέτρο μεταξύ οικονομικής
στρατηγικής και φιλανθρωπικής σκοπιάς. Σε μια εποχή που χαρακτηρίζεται από
μονοπώλια, ολιγοπώλια, μονοπωλιακό ανταγωνισμό και πολύμορφες ανελαστικότητες,
οι πολιτικές μας πρέπει να είναι πιο ορθολογιστικές, αλλά αυτό δεν θα έπρεπε
να μεταμορφώνεται σε πληθωροφοβία, η οποία είναι ενδημική στους ακαδημαϊκούς
οικονομολόγους. Η νομισματική συμμετρία δεν θα έπρεπε να ανταγωνίζεται την
οικονομική ακμή. Μια μεγαλύτερη εναρμόνιση μεταξύ των πρακτικών των
οικονομικών και νομισματικών αρχόντων είναι βασική. Παράλληλα με αυτό, πρέπει
να εκσυγχρονίσουμε και να εναρμονίσουμε όλο και περισσότερο τις οικονομικές
και νομισματικές μας πρακτικές πανεθνικώς. Αυτές οι θεωρήσεις είναι πιο
εφαρμόσιμες τώρα, όταν τα προγνωστικά του πολιτικού και οικονομικού
βαρομέτρου είναι αλκυονίδων ημερών αίθρια. Η ιστορία της δίδυμης οργάνωσης σε
αυτήν την σφαίρα είναι διδακτική και οι γνωστικές τους εφαρμογές θα είναι
πάντα ένα τονωτικό στις πολυώνυμες και ιδιόμορφες εθνικές οικονομίες. Η
γένεση μιας προγραμματισμένης οργάνωσης θα ενισχύσει αυτές τις πολιτικές. Γι'
αυτόν το λόγο αντιμετωπίζω με συμπάθεια, αλλά όχι χωρίς κριτική διάθεση, ένα
ή δύο θέματα με τους αποστόλους της ιεραρχίας των οργάνων μας στον ζήλο τους
να προγραμματίσουν ορθόδοξες οικονομικές και νομισματικές πολιτικές.
Απολογούμαι που σας τυράννησα με την ελληνική μου φρασεολογία. Στον επίλογό μου δίνω έμφαση στην ευλογία
μου, προς τους φιλόξενους αυτόχθονες αυτής της κοσμοπολίτικης μητρόπολης
καθώς και το εγκώμιό μου προς εσάς, κύριοι στενογράφοι GREEK WORDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
(DICTIONARY) A. abyss, academy, acme = ακμή, δόξα, acrobat, acropolis, aegis, aerial, aerodrome, aeronautics, aeroplane,
aesthetic, air, all, allegory, allergy, alphabet, amalgam, ambrosia,
amethyst, amnesia, amphibian, amphitheatre, amphora, anachronism, anaemia,
anagram, analogy, analysis, anarchism, anathema, anatomy, angel, anomalous,
antagonism, anorexia, anthology, anticyclone, aorta, apathetic, aphorism,
apocalypse, apologise, apoplexy, apostasy, apostle, apostrophe, apothecary,
archaeology, archbishop, archdeacon, archipelago, architect, arctic,
aristocratic, arithmetic, aroma, arsenic, asbestos, ascetic, asphyxia,
asthma, astrology, astronaut, astronomy, asylum, atheism, athlete,
atmosphere, atom, atrophy, aura, austere authentic, autobiography, autocrat,
automatic, autograph, autonomous, autopsy, axiom. B. bacterium, baptism, barbarian, baritone,
barometer, basic, basil, bathos, basis, Bible, bibliography, bigamy,
biochemistry, biography, biology, biplane, blasphemy, botany. C. call = καλώ, calando, callus, calyx,
canon, captain, card, cartography, castor, cataclysm, catacombs, catalogue,
catalyst, catapult, cataract, catarrh, catastrophe, catechism, category, cathedral,
cathode, catholic, caustic, cell, cemetery, cenotaph, centre, ceramic,
chameleon, chaos, character, chart, chasm, chimera, chiropractor, choir,
chiropodist, chord choreography, chorus, Christ, chromatic, chromosome,
chronic, chronicle, chronological, chronometer, chrysalis, chrysanthemum,
cinema, cirrhosis, claustrophobia, cleric, climacteric, climate, climax,
clinic, code, colossal. Comedy, comic, comma, cosmos, cosmetic, cosmonaut,
cost, crisis, criterion, criticism, crypt, crystal, cybernetics, cycle,
cyclone, cyclopaedia, cyclotron, cylinder, cymbal, cynic, cyst. D. deacon = διάκων, decade, Decalogue, delta, demagogic, democracy, demography, demon,
demotic, dermatology, diabetes, diabolic, diadem diaeresis (διαλυτικά), diagnosis, diagonal, diagram, dialect,
dialogue, diameter, diamond, diaphanous, diaphragm, diatribe, dichotomy, dictator,
didactic, diet, dilemma, dinosaur, dioxide, diorama, diphtheria, diphthong,
diploma, diplomat, disaster, disc, dolphin, dose, double, draconian, dragon,
drama, drastic, dynamic, dynamite, dynasty, dyspepsia, disharmony… E. eccentric, ecclesiastic, echo, eclectic,
eclipse, ecology, economic, ecstasy, ecumenical, ecumenical, eczema, egoism,
elastic, electric, elegiac, elephant, elliptic, emblem, embryo, emetic,
emphasis, empiric, emporium, encyclopaedia, endemic, energy, enigma,
enthrone, enthusiasm, entomology, enzyme, ephemeral, epidemic, epigram,
epilepsy, epilogue, epiphany, episode, epistle, epistyle, epitaph, epithet,
epitome, epoch, erotic, esoteric, ether, ethic, ethnic, ethos, etymology,
eucalyptus, Eucharist, eugenics, eulogize, eunuch, euphemism, euphony,
euphoria, Eurasia, eureka, evangelic, exodus, exorcize, exotic…… F.fable=φαύλος-μύθος, fanatic, fantasy,
father, frenetic=φρενήρης….. G. galaxy, gastronomy, general, genesis, genus,
genitive = γενική, George, geo,
geography, geometry, geocentric, geophysics, geopolitics, geology, geometry,
gerontology, gigantic, glycerine, gyro, government, grammatical, gramophone,
graphic, gymnasium, Gregorian, gynaecology….. H. hagiology, halcyon = αλκυών, harmony = αρμονία, hecatomb, hectare, hedonism, hegemony, helicopter, heliotrope,
helium, helot, hemisphere, haemorrhage=αιμορραγία, haemorrhoids, hepatitis, heretic, hermaphrodite, hermetic, hermit,
hero, heroin, Hesperus, heterodox, heterogeneous, heterosexual, hexagon,
hexameter, hierarchy, hieroglyph, hilarious, hippopotamus, hippodrome,
history, holocaust, holograph, homeopathy, homogeneous, homonym, homophone,
hour = ώρα, (χώρα), horizon, hymen, hyperbole, hypnosis,
hypocrisy, hypotenuse, hysteria, homosexual, horde, horizon, hormone, hour,
hydrostatics, hydrophobia, hyena, hygiene, hymn, hypertrophy, hypochondria,
hypodermic, hypothesis. K. kaleidoscope, kilo, kilocycle, kilogram,
kilometre, kilolitre, kinetic, kleptomania…... l. labyrinth, laconic, laic, lachrymal = δάκρυσμα, larynx, lava, lesbian, lethargy, leukaemia,
lexical, lithography, logarithm, logic, logistics, lynx, lyre, lyric ….. M. macrobiotic, macrocosm, magic, magnet, mania,
mathematics, mechanic, medal, megacycle, megalith, megalomania, megaphone,
megaton, meiosis, melancholia, melodic, melodrama, meningitis, menopause, metabolism,
metallic, metallurgy, metamorphosis, metaphor, metaphysics, meteor,
meteorite, meteorology, meter, metre, metric, metronome, metropolis, miasma,
microbe, microbiology, microelectronics, micrometer, micron, micro organism,
microphone, microscope, mimeograph, mimetic, monarch, monastery, monogamy,
monogram, monolith, monologue, monomania, monoplane, monopoly, monosyllable,
monotheism, monotone, morphology, museum, music, myopia, myriad, mysterious, mystic,
myth….. N. narcissism, narcotic, nautical, nautilus,
necromancy, necropolis, nectar, nemesis, Neolithic, neologism, neon, news,
nerve, neoplasm, nephritis, neuralgia, neurasthenia, nominative =
ïíïìáóôéêÞ,
nostalgia, nymph. O. oasis, ocean, octagon, octane, octave,
octogenarian, octopus, ode (ωδή), odyssey,
oesophagus, Oedipus complex, orgy, oligarchy, Olympiad, Olympic,
onomatopoeia, ontology, ophthalmic, optic (optimist, option), orchestra,
orchid, organ, organic, organism, organize, orgasm, orphan, orthodox,
orthographic, orthopaedic, osteopath, ouzo, oxide, oxygen. ….. P. pachyderm, pagan=παγανιστής-ειδωλολάτρης, Paleolithic, paleontology, palm, panacea, panchromatic, pancreas, pandemic, pandemonium, panegyric=πανηγυρική ομιλία, panic, panoply, panorama, pantechnicon, pantheism, pantheon, panther, parabola=παραβολή, paradigm, paradox, paragon=παράγων-υπόδειγμα, paragraph, parallel, paralysis, paranoia, paraphrase, paraplegia, parasite, paratyphoid, parenthesis, pariah=παρίας, parody, paroxysm, patter, pathetic, pathology, pathos, patriarch, patriot, patronymic, pedagogue, pederasty, pediatrics, pedometer=βηματομετρητής, pentagon, pentameter, Pentateuch, pentathlon, Pentecost, Pepsis, perihelion=περιήλιο, perimeter, period, peripatetic, periphrasis, periphery, periscope, peristyle, peritonitis, petal=πέταλο άνθους, phalanx, phallus=φαλλός, phantasm, pharmacology, pharmacy, pharynx, phase, phenomenon, philanthropy, philately, philharmonic, philology, philosophy, philter, phlebitis, phlegm, phobia, phoenix, phone, phoneme=φώνημα, phonetic, phonograph, phonology, phosphorous, photo, photoelectric, photogenic, photograph, photolithography, photometer, phrase, phrenology, phthisis, physics, physiognomy, physiology, physiotherapy, planet, plasma, plasma, plastic, plectrum=πλήκτρο, pleonasm, plethora,
plural, πλήθος, πληθυντικός, plutocracy, plutonium, pneumatic, pneumonia, pole=πόλος, polemic, policy, police, politics, polyandry, polygamy, polyglot, polygon, polymorphous, polyphony, polypus, polysyllable, polytechnic, polytheism, porn, practice, pragmatism, presbyter, prism, problem, prognosis, programmer, prologue, prophecy, prophylactic, proscenium=προσκήνιο, proselyte, prosody, protagonist, protocol, proton, protoplasm, protozoa, prototype, psalm, pseudonym, psyche, psychedelic, psychic, psychoanalysis, psychology, psychopath, psychosis, psychotherapy, pterodactyl, pylon=πυλώνας, pyramid, pyre=πυρά, pyrites, pyrotechnics=πυροτέχνημα, python….. Q = k: qoppa – Kappa … R. radio, Reyna, rhyme, rhythm….. S. sandal, sarcasm, sarcophagus, sardonic, satyr,
scene, skeptic, schematic, schism, schizophrenia, scholar, scholastic,
school, scoria, scorpion, Scylla, seismic, semantic, semaphore=σηματοφόρος, septicemia=σηψαιμία, serial, sir, solecism=σολοικισμός, sophism, spasm, sphinx, stadium, stalactite, stalagmite, star,
static, statistics, stereophonic, stereoscopic, sternum, stigma, stoic,
stomach, strategy, stratagem, stratosphere, streptococcus, streptomycin,
strophe, sycophant, syllogism, syllable, symbol, symmetry, sympathetic,
symphony, symposium, symptom, synagogue, synchronize, syncope, syndrome,
synod, synonym, synopsis, syntax, synthesis, syphilis, syringe, system….. T. tactic, talent, tantalize = Τάνταλος, tartar, tautology, taxidermy, technique,
technocracy, technology, telegram, telegraph, telemetry, teleology,
telepathy, telephone, telephoto, telescope, theatre, theism, theme, theocracy,
theology, theorem, theoretic, theory, theosophy, therapeutic, therapy,
thermo, thermal, thermion, thermometer, thermos, thesaurus, thesis, tone,
topography, Trapeze, tragedy, tragicomedy, tremor, trigonometry, trilogy,
tripod, trireme = τριήρη,
triple, trophy, tropic, typhoon, typo,
typical, typography, tyranny….. U. unanimous, anonymous, Uranus, uranium…… V = W = B(β):
basic, barbarian.. X. xenophobe, xylophone, xenia, xenon ….. y. hypo - hyper , super = υπό - υπέρ….. Z. Zeus = Ζευς, zephyr, zeugma, zodiac,
zone, zoology….. 2. THE GREEK LANGUAGE Why the Greek
Language by a single vote lost, from once again, becoming the official
international language Because in the middle of
the past (20th) century the interdependence of nations in the
sectors of economy, arts & science created the need for international
diplomacy and communication with a single common language, and because the
most widespread up to then languages, such as English, French, German,
Chinese, and others are very difficult to learn, certain scholars proposed
the reintroduction of Ancient Greek or Latin as the official International
language. However, this idea was
rejected because both of these languages are not being spoken and
consequently they do not serve the requirements of an emerging world, while
others claimed that this problem would be resolved by the so called
artificial languages that had begun to appear. This rejection however,
was a big mistake, because: 1) The Greek language
other than its world-wide contribution, it is also the easiest and the only
language capable of the most comprehensive transmission of meaning, nearly
perfect, as we will see below. 2) The ancient Greek
language even though is not been spoken today, nevertheless its continuity
exists through modern Greek, which of course, is as rich and beautiful as the
ancient Greek, and perhaps a bit beyond. And we are saying this, because the
modern Greek language has vastly increased its vocabulary through the
creation and addition of new words, and also through simplification by the
Greek literary scholars of some of the difficult parts of the ancient Greek
grammar, such as (suffixes, noun and adjective cases, elimination of orthographic
symbols, etc.), and thus the modern Greek language is simpler and more
precise than the ancient Greek. 3) The artificial
languages, as we will see below, have been proven to be for simplistic communication
and nothing more. It is also noted, that: 1) According to the
assumptions of those supporting the artificial language ‘Esperanto’ (see,
encyclopedia “SCIENCE & LIFE”, and others), in 1900 the official
international English language was being spoken by roughly 10% of the world
population. In 1950 11%, while today decreased to 8.5%. According to some, this reduction is due to
the English language and writing being too difficult to learn. 2) It is said that, in a
meeting that took place in New York City at the end of the 20th century by
renowned economists and arts & science scholars in order to decide which
will become for them the official international language, the Greek language
lost by a single vote, cast by the
Polish (however of Jewish ancestry) doctor Lazarus Loyntbich Zamenchof
(L.L. Zamenchof, 1859 - 1917) or with his philological pseudonym "
Doctor Esperanto ", and thus the name of the artificial language
Esperanto that he created. 3) The artificial
languages were created by selected words that are common in many languages
(the Esperanto language is basically based on the vocabulary of languages of
Latin origin: English, French, German) and it is assumed with inventive rules
of writing and spelling, syntax and conjugation, to facilitate ease of learning.
However, these languages are only for simplistic communication, because for a
comprehensive transmission of meaning the requirement is a natural language.
In addition, the artificial languages are incapable of doing what a natural
language appears to be able to do, and because there are very many of them or
that they only address specific individuals.
The Greek language has an extremely
precise expression and an easy and unlimited reproductive
capability of words. Observing
the words of the Greek language we see that some are common, simple (single)
words while others are compound, i.e.: γράφω, δια-γράφω, εξ-υπ-ακούγεται… and, all to be
constituted or made-up (except the: articles,
conjunctions and prepositions)
from specific component elements, known as: root, prefix, subject, accent (tone), suffix (derivative), and suffix
(vocative-case sensitive), whereby each one of them produces a
proportional meaning in the word, i.e.: γράφ-ω (= verb, present tense, 1st
person), έ-γραφ-ες, (= verb, past tense, 2nd person) , δια-γραφ-ή (compound verb, compound noun, compound
adjective)… εξ-έχ-ω, εξ-οχ-ή, έξ-οχ-η.. Stem
(subject) is a group of two-character letters (GK. phthongs) which is common
in many simple words, as e.g.: the stem subject “γραφ-“ in the words: γραφ-ω, γραφ-ή…The stem subject
relates to the sounds of nature and it is either a self-produced sound of
some being or processed sound (something like the marble and the statue),
i.e., κρα-κρα… > κράζ-ω, τρ… > τρίζω, τρίβω, τριβή… vow..
or bouu… > boul, βους… Derivative and vocative suffixes are
called the specific two-character letters (GK. phthongs) with which we
produce the parts of speech (= the nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.) and also
conjugate (we form the singular or plural, as well as the nominative case,
possessive case, etc), the combination of the two-character letters (GK.
phthongs) with which we reveal or imply the part of speech or the signified
type, that is to say what we want to express, e.g.: Stem subject γραφ- and words: γράφ-ω, γραφ-έας, γραφ-είς, γραφ-ή, γραφ-ές, γραφ-είο, γραφ-ικ-ός,ή,ο, γραφ-ομεν-ος,η,ο…. Consequently
the Greek words have affinity, causal relation and expression, while simultaneously
the Greek language has unlimited possibilities to generate new words. Contrarily,
in the other languages basically there are no constituted component elements
of words, but a fixed quantity of words whereby the structure of these words
(in reality, syntax by apposition) produces the expression (the oral speech). Observing
for example, the vocabulary of the Chinese language (note, somewhere between
the Greek and Chinese languages are the other languages) we see that there
are all and all 328 simple and
indeclinable monosyllable words (similar to the Greek indeclinable words
(conjunctions): με, σε, επί, συν, δια, μετά…), from which with simple composition and a
gradual rise-and-decline of the voice in the oral speech crop up the
remainder, e.g.: see, the below Chinese words: “πε” = κύπελλο, cup“τσιμ” = χρυσός,η,ο, golden «τσιμ πε» = χρυσό κύπελλο, gold cup, «τσάου» = μέρα, day, «νι τσάου» = καλημέρα, good
day, «σιαμ-σουέ» = το άρωμα (το αρωματόνερο), aroma, «σεν» = ο Θεός,God, «σί-λά» = η Ελλάδα, Greece, «τσούν-κούο» = η Κίνα, China, «μέϊ-κό» = η Αμερική, America… Observing
also the various current European languages (English, French, Spanish, etc.)
we basically see that all of them also do not have any linguistic productive
code of communication, but that they resemble the Chinese language, that is
to say they express with the ‘at apposition syntax’ of words, e.g.: in
English: I go, go on,… I love, you love, the love, of love… = ελληνικά πάω, προχωρώ, αγαπώ, αγάπη… Hence,
we do not have only 328 words, but many more from which some are generated
with suffixes, e.g.: in English: Lovely, loveless, lovelies…. and others are
Greek or Latin etc, e.g.: Ευρώπη ( And
because in the other languages, more or less, the words do not have
constituted component elements, the words are usually composed of a few
syllables and without significant productive capability, while in contrast
the Greek language in relation to the others has an extremely easy and
unlimited productive capability for words. These
are the reason for which: a) The Greek language has the richer vocabulary than all other, b) The
other languages are usually borrowing (take) words from other languages
(usually from Greek
and Latin) or create words with Greek and Latin constituted
component elements of words,
e.g.: τηλέφωνο - telephone (tele +
phone), πρωτοτυπία > prototype
(proto + type),
photo types…. The Greek language has clarity and expression Because the words of the Greek language are
constituted by concrete and specific component elements (root or subject +
suffix, etc.) and at the same time each one of them expresses with logical
correctness something concrete for the signified type (the prefix - e -
expresses action in the past, the suffixes express the part of speech or the
signified type, that is to say if the signified type is active or passive,
noun or adjective, masculine or feminine, etc., that is why: A) The
Greek words are expressive and absolutely explicit in their meaning and easy
to comprehend. Their meaning becomes clear by simply analyzing their
constituted compound elements, i.e.: λύν-ω, έ-λυσ-α, γράφ-ω, γραφέ-ας, γραπτ-ός, γραφ-ική.., For
example, the word “verb” in the Greek language in addition to other things
with the suffix reveals: a)
Which precisely is the subject of this part of speech or sentence (that is to
say if the subject is the speaker or the listener or a third person): αγαπώ,
it means, I = the speaker = subject, αγαπάς
it means, you = the listener = subject, αγαπά, it means, he, she, it = the third person = subject…, b)
Voice (whether we are active or passive): I love (Yannis…) = active voice
& I am loved (by Yannis.) = passive voice. c)
Tense (the present, the past and the future) active or passive: λύν-ω = active now & έλυσ-α = active past tense…. This is something which in
order to be said in other languages it must be said together with other
words, for example: αγαπώ, ας,α
= I love, you love, he-she-it loves… αγαπιέμαι = I am loved by John. B) In
the Greek language there is the capability to form many rhetorical and
syntactical types of speech for the purpose of correctly expressing or
accentuating (emphasizing) the meaning of the speech, for example: The
train is driven by George. = subjunctive syntaxes, Ο Γιώργος οδηγεί το τραίνο. = indicative
syntaxes, Ο Γιώργος είναι οδηγός του τραίνου. =
imperative syntaxes. George
not only went, but he also hit Aris = George other than he went, he also hit
Aris. Instead of simply: George went and hit Aris. In the Chinese language (somewhere between
the Greek and Chinese languages are the other languages), because the words
do not have constituted compound elements (suffixes, etc.), they have many
meanings or they belong to several parts of speech (they are something like
the stems (subjects): γραφ-, καλ-, αγαπ-.. in Greek) and
their meaning is arranged: a)
From the intensity of the tone, e.g.: in Chinese: "κιό (very accentuated) = water &
“kio"? (less accentuated) = I ask, something similar to the Greek
indeclinable words: η &
ή (In the indeclinable polysyllabic words the
meaning is determined proportionally from which syllable is accented, while
in the Greek language: seldom &
never…) b)
From the position that the word in question is in the sentence (or from what
other word it has before or after). e.g.: in the English word love, where
this word (or any other), if it is said with a pronoun it becomes verb: i love = αγαπώ, if it is said
with the article “the” it becomes noun:
the love = η αγάπη… if it
is said with the word “of” it becomes a noun in the possessive case: of love
= the love of, etc. Hence,
that which we reveal with the suffixes, inflection and declension in the
Greek language, it is done in the other languages by placing before or after
the word in question one other word. This is also the reason that: a) In the Greek language if we even utter a
single word, we become absolutely comprehensible or explicitly clear, for
example: αγαπ-ώ, αγάπ-η, αγαπ-άς, αγαπ-ά... b) In the other languages, in
order to become comprehensible or absolutely and explicitly clear, we must
speak with complete sentences of the syntactical type: Υ + Ρ + Α or Κ , where
Υ = subject, Ρ = verb, Α = object, Κ = predicate: I love you. He loves me.
Mary loves books. Love is a good thing. Greek is the most euphonic and easy to pronounce language Comparing the
vocabulary, the words of the Greek language with those of other languages we
see that Greek words are easier to pronounce and at the same time more
beautiful and appealing to the sense of hearing, and that is because: 1) The Greek words
are created with constituted compound elements (= the root or the subject +
tone (accent) + suffix, etc.) and do not have difficult clusters (that is to
say difficult in tone μπ(b), ντ(d), γκ(g), νμ, νρ, νλ…), since the
Greek language through the passage of time has removed or altered them, i.e.:
In the Greek words, μπογιατζής > βογιατζής, γκαρίζω > γκάιδαρος > γάιδαρος, Μπενετία (Benetia > Venetia) > Βενετία ή Ενετία, συν-μαθητής > συμμαθητής, συν-λέγω > συλλέγω, συν-ράπτω > συρράπτω, τιμάω > τιμώ, τιμάεις – τιμάς, Αθηνάα > Αθηνά… In the verbal speech: in Greek, Φέρε τη(ν) μάνα σου και λίγ(α) απ(ό) όλα και θα σ(ε) αγαπώ. Consequently, the
Greek vocabulary (words), the Greek oral speech is a creation that resulted
as the timber and the furniture or the Stone and the marble. Contrarily, in
the other languages the words are usually with few syllables and few vowels,
something similar that occurs with words in the Greek Language, i.e.: in
English: good, max, two, I love, you love… 2) The Greek
words are not accented in an accidental or specific syllable from the last
syllable (suffix) of words, as it happens with words of other languages
resulting in being heard monotonously, but where the part of speech or the
type of word determines and harmonizes and thus the tone in Greek helps us
with the comprehension of the word while producing beautiful audibility in
the verbal speech, e.g., in the Greek polysyllabic words the adjectives are
accented in the antepenultimate syllable,
the verbs in the penultimate syllable
and the nouns in the final
syllable: in Greek, έξοχος,η,ο, άδικος,η,ο, κάθετος,η,ο, έ-ξοχη, εξο-χή, ε-ξέ-χω, ε-ξέ-χει,… κά-λος, κα-λός, …. The French
language usually accentuates the words in the final syllable, e.g.: pieta...
and the English language in the antepenultimate syllable (or in penultimate
syllable, if there is no antepenultimate), e.g.: love, anderlect, 3. THE
GREEK SYSTEM OF WRITING A. The Greek grammar is the most precise, nearly perfect system in
the world (The only writing system that records the words as an electronic
recorder does and beyond!) Writing may be an
ancient human invention, but those that more importantly went a step beyond
in perfecting it are the Greeks with the invention of a system and
methodology of writing that records the oral speech not only as the recorder
does, which may also be accomplished through other systems and methodologies
of writing, but they went beyond, etymologically, in order to avoid any
misapprehension with the sound-alike words. Specifically, in the Greek system
of writing are the following letters and special symbols, which do not exist
in any other system of writing, which also, depict the speech not only
phonetically, but also etymologically: 1) The capital letters: A, B, Γ … and small letters: α, β, γ… The small letters: α, β, γ… are not
for simplification, (“επισεσυρμένη γραφή”) as it is called in
Greek, but were devised in order to point out to the reader that the word
that begins with such letter does not signify a principal noun, but a common
noun, i.e.: νίκη & Νίκη, κριτικός & Κρητικός, αγαθή & Αγαθή… The capital letters: Α, Β, Γ… are
not the regular letters of the Greek
alphabet, as it is said, but sound-alike with the small letters, which were
devised in order to point out to the reader the sentences of a topic (in
writing the first letter of each sentence) and also to differentiate between
the principal and common nouns, i.e.: νίκη & Νίκη, κόκκινος & κ. Κόκκινος… 2) The orthographic symbols (= the apostrophe, the accentual mark and
the solvents) The orthographic
symbols are not for the purpose to indicate old prosody (the musicality of
the ancient Greek language), as it is said, but the specific accented
pronunciations during a speech, that is to say, the accented and languid
syllables, as well as pronunciation with contraction, vowel fusion, etc.,
e.g.: σ’ όλα & σόλα, μία & μια, θεϊκός & θείος, έξοχη (adjective) & εξοχή (noun), σόλα (παπουτσιού) & σ’ όλα (έκθλιψη) = σε όλα, μία (two syllables) & μια (one syllable with vowel fusion), θεϊκός (ασυναίρετα, το εϊ = δυο φθόγγοι) & θείος (συνηρημένα, το ει = ένας φθόγγος)). Alike: ποίος & ποιος, πότε &
ποτέ, σ’ όλα = σε όλα & σόλα, λίγα από όλα & λίγ’ απ όλα… 3) The sound-alike letters: Ο(ο) &
Ω(Ω), Ε(ε) & ΑΙ(αι), Η(η) & Υ(υ) & Ι(Ι)… The letters Η(η), Ω(ω), Υ(υ)… are not letters that depict ancient
diphthongs which today coincide with Ι, Ο, as it is falsely claimed by some, but letters that resulted from
distortion of scheme (form) of - I (I), O (o) -, for the purpose of creating
the sound-alike letters: Ο(ο) & Ω(ω), Η(η) & Υ(υ) & Ι(ι) & ΟΙ(οι)… with which, based upon rules, the etymology
becomes clear (conjugation, type, gender, singular, plural, etc.), hence the
precise meaning of words (writing for example the female gender with –η, the neutral gender with – I, etc.), and thus
we are helped in the comprehension of words and in the differentiation of the
sound-alike words, e.g.: κουτί & κουτή & κουτοί, λύρα & λίρα. Simpler yet, with the
sound-alike letters: Ο(ο)
& Ω(ω), Η(η)
& Υ(υ) & Ι(ι)…
we indicate in the suffix the part of conjugation or the part of speech
(grammatical type) that the word reveals, writing for example: with –ο,η,ι - the singular case of
the nouns and adjectives: καλό, καλή, νίκη, τιμή, σύκο, φιλί,…, with –ω,ει- the present tense of the verbs: καλώ, γελώ, τρέχω, σήκω, καλεί,…. (similarly the
remainder parts of speech, numbers, etc.), and the subject or the root or the original word of a derivative,
e.g.: κρίνω, κριτής > κριτικός (with –ι) & Κρήτη > Κρητικός (with -η)…συν-μαθητής > συμμαθητής (with two -μμ) & έμεινα (with one -μ)… , so that the reader is helped in the
comprehension of words and the differentiation or distinction of the
sound-alike words. As we see from the
above examples with the help of the sound-alike letters: Ο(ο) & Ω(Ω), Ε(ε) & ΑΙ(αι), Η(η) & Υ(υ) & Ι(Ι)… ,
but also the orthographic symbols we are quickly able to distinguish the
sound-alike words or we understand whether we are talking about a verb or a noun or adjective, etc., or the
genders male, or neuter, or principal, or common name etc. Consequently the
letters -Ω, -Η, -Υ-
are not leftover ancient diphthongs, as it is claimed by some, but sound-alike
letters, for the afore mentioned reasons. Therefore: 1) The Greeks, with the invention of capital and
small letters, as well as orthographic symbols and sound-alike letters, if we
pay close attention, we will see that they write (spell) particularly easily
not only as the electronic recorder does, but also beyond that. With the
recorder there can be misapprehension because of the sound-alike words, while
with the Greek alphabet’s writing misapprehension is impossible, because with the Greek sp 2) Because the Greek system of writing records the
words as such, precisely as heard and simultaneously depending on their
etymology at the moment when we write, going back to the ancient Greek
written texts we can see how exactly the Greek words were in each period of
evolution of the Greek language. That is something that can not be done in
any other language’s writings, because the other language writings record the
words historically (writings with Latin characters: English, French, and
others), others ideographically (Chinese, Japanese, and others) and others
consonantly (Arabic, Persian, and others). 3) If the Greeks had discovered in spelling only
the letters of vowels, as it is
claimed by some, it would not be significant (it would only be something
simpler), since instead of them in writings that do not have vowels there are
indicative symbols that are added, if it is required on or under the
consonants that would have vowels for clarification. The significant thing in
the history of writing is also the invention of the sound-alike letters (ο & ω, η & ι & ι…) and the invention of orthographic symbols
(accentual mark, apostrophe, solvents) and also the invention of defined
rules of spelling (orthographic). Clearly, the rules by which in writing the
orthographic symbols and the sound-alike letters in words (= to write for
example the female gender with –η, the neuter with –ι,ο, the
verbs with –ω,ει…) it is very
important, because, if these were created by chance, then Greek writing would
be very difficult and time-consuming to learn it. 4) In all the languages of the world there are
sound-alike words, accented and languid syllables, pronunciation with contraction, vowel fusion, etc. However in
the writings of other populations (Indian, etc.) these are not indicated,
since there are neither orthographic symbols (accentual mark, apostrophe,
etc.) nor sound-alike letters (=: Ω (ω) & Ο (ο), Η( η) &
Υ(υ) & Ι (ι)…) nor capital and small letters, with which these
would be indicated. In Latin and the current writings with Latin characters
(English, French, etc.) there are only the capital and small letters.
Consequently all of the other language writings are, more or less, inferior
in precision and expression to the Greek language. 5) Other the diphthongs: οϋ, αϊ, εϊ, οϊ, υϊ = two
letters (phthongs), and else the two-character letters: ου, αι, ει, οι, υι = one
letter. In writing the diphthongs are
distinguished from the two-character letters by the solvents and accentual
mark: άι = αϊ, αί = ε. 6) In observing the Greek writing, ancient and
modern, we see that the letters are simple and constant in scheme, hence easy
to script (draw) and distinct in their reading; and, the words are written
with as many different letters as there are different two-character letters
in the words, consonants and vowels, which provides the capability of writing
any word or any sound, e.g.: ε, α, αέρας, εε, εαα… this capability does not exist in other
languages. For example, the letters in the Egyptian language are images of
beings and as such there is a need for some form of figurative talent for
drawing. In the cuneiform and linear writing the letters have complex schemes
which requires a lot of time for familiarization and learning, and also some
figurative talent for drawing. In the Indian and Arabic language alphabets
the letters are attached to each other, while also they do not have a
constant scheme, thus it requires some figurative talent and a lot of time of
familiarization and learning. 7) From the sound-alike letters Ο(ο) & Ω(ω), Ε(ε) & ΑΙ(αι), Η(η) & Υ(υ) & Ι(ι) & ΟΙ(οι)…. that have been devised in the Greek alphabet and
writing for the reasons afore mentioned, Ω(ω),
Η(η) – it is the invention of the Ions and for this reason, obviously, these letters are called Ionic by the other Greeks according
to historian Herodotus. 8) Nevertheless, In the Greek alphabet system of
writing there is still a need for some small improvements, such as: The
two-character letter – OY - (ou) to be written with a single character and be
simplified; to reduce the orthographic rules, but with research and study and
not at random, in order that writing-spelling to become even easier. Not, for
example: οδεύω, κλαδεύω, παύω…, but οδέβω, κλαδέβω, πάβω…
Similarly: βράδι (instead βράδυ), μπράντι (instead μπράντυ), (to be written with – ι – just as the other
neuter nouns in - ι: τυρί, ψωμί, παιδί... Greek writing writes not only like
magnetograph, but more! The Greek
writing is the only system in the world in which you can write exactly what
you enunciate (utter) phonetically (in phthongs = sounds of words) and what
at the same time you mean etymologically (in part of speech, gender, number,
case or person and in derivation and compound of the words), using the
alphabet letters: A(α), Β(β),..., and
proportional (with rules) the homophone letters ο & ω, ε & αι, η & υ & ι.: Phonetic
(in phthongs, in oral speech): “fili, filo, calo”… &
In Greek writing: φυλή (with
–η, if we mean
feminine) & φιλί (with
–ι, if we mean
neutral), φύλο (with
one λ, if
we mean of tree) & φύλλο (with
tow λλ, if
we mean of people), καλό (with
–ο, if we mean
adjective) & καλώ (with –ω, if we mean
verb)…. Important note: 1) With microphone make mistake, but with Greek writing system no, see
e.g.: Micro phonic: lira, kalos,
kali… Greek writing: λύρα & λίρα, καλός & καλώς, καλή
& καλεί & καλοί… 2) The only thing that cannot be produced (written) with the Greek writing is the
whistling and the color
of the voice. That is something that cannot be conveyed in the oral speech
from one person to another. 3) Since phthongs are invariable sound elements and the Greek writing
transfers on to paper exactly what we utter (tell) phonetically and at the same
time what we mean etymologically the moment we are writing, it is easy
looking back at the ancient writings, to notice how the Greek words were
phonetically at each period of the Greek language as well as to observe the
language at itself. Some others writing systems are phonetic (Italic, Russian
etc), but not etymologically B. The Greek
system of writing is not only the most precise and perfect, but also the
easiest in the world, since it can be learned in 30 minutes! The Greek system of writing, apart from being the
most precise and perfect in the world, as we have seen above, it is the
easiest, since the time required to learn it corresponds to the time required
in order to learn: a) the alphabet, that is to say the equivalence
to the 20 two-character letters (Gk. phthongs): α ε ο u ι κ γ χ τ δ θ π β φ μ ν λ ρ σ ζ with their corresponding letters, e.g.: Α(α) = [α], ΑΙ(αι) = Ε(ε) = [ε], Ο(ο) = Ω(ω) = [ο], ΟΥ(ου) = [u]... which does not need more than 10 - 20 minutes b) The rules which are used in the writing of
words that require the sound-alike letters: ω & ο,
ε & αι, μμ & μ...., as those, of: The verbs with -ω, ει: καλ-ώ είς, εί, σήκ-ω…The
feminine gender with -η: καλή,ής,
νίκη, τιμή... The neuter gender with ο/ι: καλ-ό, κακό, φυτό... τυρί, ψωμί…., which does not require more than 20 - 30 minutes.. Unless it is learning required for small children
or foreigners, who do not know the language, thereby the difficulty is
attributed to having to learn the language and not the system of writing, or
for teaching optical or empirical of the grammatical type, e.g.: "καλή μάνα" with -η, while "καλοί άνθρωποι"
with -οι, "καλό πράγμα"
with -ο, while
"καλώ τον Άρη"
with -ω, "καλός άνθρωπος" with -ο, while "καλώς τον Άρη" with -ω,.... Hence time-consuming learning which is only then
is achieved, when the student understands that the writing is dependent upon
which part of speech, type and derivation or composition the word is and not
with what is stated in the school’s grammar: καλ-ή, with -η, if it is
the feminine gender, as all other: νίκη, τιμή.... , καλ-εί, with ει, if it is a verb, as all
other: θέλει, λέγει… καλ-ό, with -ο, if it is an adjective , as
all other: κακό, σοφό,… καλ-ώ, with -ω, if it
is a verb , as all other: λέγω, τιμώ.... Most important observations: 1) The Greek writing may appear very complex and difficult at first
glance, because of the homophone letters O(o) & Ω(ω), Η(η) & Υ(υ)
& Ι(Ι)…, but it is actually very simple and easy, if you know the alphabet
and its rules. The rules which dictate to us when and how we use the
homophone letters: Ο(o) & Ω(ω), Υ(υ) & Η(η)
& Ι(Ι)... 2) The Greek system of
writing (spelling) is the easiest in the world, however only if it is taught
properly, that is to say teaching the student the alphabet and the defined
rules, otherwise it appears like a labyrinth or Chinese writing. And this,
because many people, as soon as they see that in the Greek system of writing
there are many letters, which even though are different in scheme (shape),
they are pronounced the same, immediately they feel lost (swamped) with the
thought that it is not possible that they can remember which word is written
with what letter and which with another letter etc., and thus abandon their
effort to learn it. However, this is a superficial and consequently erroneous
evaluation. Certainly the Greek alphabet (writing) has several sound-alike
letters: ο & ω, ε & αι, υ & η & ι... and thus it appears difficult and
time-consuming to learn it. How can I remember, one would say, which word is
written for example with - ω – and which with – o --,
which word with – αι – and which
with – ε – etc. Moreover, this is for the uninitiated, for
those who see superficially the Greek spelling system, since these
sound-alike letters are not inserted in the words incidentally or
historically, as it is with the orthography of words in writings with Latin
characters, but with a few specifically defined rules, as the following: The
verbs with -ω,ει,: σήκω, φοιτώ, καλώ, καλεί, καλείς,.... , The neuter nouns
with –ο,ι: σύκο, φυτό, καλό, φύλο,… φύλλο, φιλί, ..., the feminine nouns
with –η: καλή, καλής,.. etc. Therefore, if we remember these rules Greek spelling becomes
very easy. 3) We teach the children first the language (vocabulary, structure of
words, parts of speech, phonetic variations...) and then the Greek writing
(letters and their rules). This is because the writing of the word according
to the Greek writing does not occur accidentally or simply phonetically, but
it depends on the part of the speech and the form of the word (more see
later). Since the phthongs are identical for all the languages, the Greek
writing can be applied to all the languages. 4) In the past
Greek spelling was much more difficult, because you had to also remember the
orthographic rules for special symbols and accentual marks or to memorize
one-by-one the correct spelling (with the proportional special symbols and
accentual marks). Today, with the modifications applied by the popular
academic linguists, Greek spelling became extremely easy. 5) In Greek and
Latin writing, because the letters have one single pronunciation, and even
though incorrectly you might write the words, again you correctly pronounce
the word and will be understood by another person, for example whether you
write “αφτι ίνε κακί σίντροφι” or “αυτύ ήναι κακή σύντροφει” or “αυτοί είναι κακοί σύντροφοι” etc., you are pronouncing
the word correctly and the meaning also comes out and is understood correctly. The only
circumstance in which the meaning is lost is if we utter a single word, which
also happens to be a sound-alike word (this is something seen in
dictionaries, inscriptions and signs), because then even though the
pronunciation of the word is correct, the meaning is lost because it is a sound-alike
word, e.g.: “αφτί” = αφτί ή αυτί & αυτοί & αυτή. Contrarily, in current day spelling with
Latin characters, because of historical spelling, if we do not write
orthographically correct the words (according to their established spelling),
the meaning is unintelligible, because each written word is like an image
that is attributable to a specific accent and meaning, therefore if you
diminish the image, it appears unrecognizable. For example, in English the
words: to & too & two, while their letters do not depict their
correct pronunciation, if we remove or change any of their letters, then
these words loose their meaning. This is also the reason that: a) In the Greek language
if we even utter a single word, we become absolutely comprehensible or explicitly
clear, for example: αγαπ-ώ, αγάπ-η, αγαπ-άς, αγαπ-ά... b) In the other
languages, in order to become comprehensible or absolutely and explicitly
clear, we must speak with complete sentences of the syntactical type: Υ + Ρ + Α or Κ, where Υ = subject, Ρ = verb, Α = object, Κ = predicate: I love you. He loves
me. Mary loves books. The love is good thing. C.
Comparing Greek writing (alphabet and spelling) with the rest of The falsehood in regard to the historic Greek system of writing According to certain
writers, the Greek alphabet and the Greek spelling should be replaced with
the Latin alphabet and Latin spelling, because in Greek spelling there are
duplicate letters that are phonetically similar, i.e.: ο & ω, ε & αι….which
makes it very difficult to remember which word is spelled, e.g. with –o- and which with –ω-, which with –e- and
which with –ai-. Also according to
certain writers, the various training and learning issues (dyslexia,
illiteracy, etc.) are due to the difficulty in learning what is required by
the current alphabets (= Greek and those with Latin characters: English,
French, Dutch, and others), because of the etymology or historical spelling
and thus they propose their elimination (abolishment), and replacement with a
new alphabet which should have only so many letters as there are vocal
sounds. For the Greek alphabet,
they say, that there are the sound-alike letters: o and ω, ε & αι….which make it difficult
to remember which word is spelled, e.g. with –o- and which with –ω- , which with –e- and
which with -ai-… For Latin based
alphabets, they say, that words while pronounced the same are spelled
differently, e.g., the English word pronounced “aintia” is spelled idea,
while this spelling displays the pronunciation “intea” which thus results in
not pointing out the correct pronunciation and requires the student to
memorize the spelling for each word, consequently that is something which is
very difficult, etc. However the
above-mentioned options contain the following errors: 1) If we only spell the words according to the vocal
sounds, that is to say without the sound-alike characters ω, η, υ…, we will not be able
to distinguish the sound-alike words in the dictionaries, signs, etc., and in
the not syntactically perfect documents, e.g: «κλίσι» = κλήση & κλίση, «αφτί» = αυτοί & αυτή & αυτί.. 2) Greek spelling is not historical (see also the
book “Untruths about the Greek language and spelling”, A. Krasanakis), but
only the spelling in languages with Latin characters (English, French, Dutch,
and others), hence these are difficult to learn and should be abolished,
e.g., Greek: idea, Europe, titan… = English: idea, In Greek writing, words
are spelled with particularly great ease, that is, precisely as they are
pronounced and at the same time depending upon their meaning-etymology and
using defined rules to determine the sound-alike letters: ο & ω, η & ι & υ…so that we may be
helped in their understanding (finding the etymology) and the differentiation
(distinction) of the sound-alike characters, e.g: καλώ & καλό, καλοί & καλεί & καλοί… Greek orthography in writing (spelling of
words) is produced systematically and according to predefined grammatical
rules, contrarily to writing in languages with Latin characters (English,
French…) because here the writing is of historical type, that is from Greek
or Latin. In the Greek writing system there is the
sound of a letter in the word (Gk. Phthongs) and also the two-character sound
alike letters (Gk. Phthongs), which have been previously defined along with
specific rules on how they are being distinguished and used. The Greek
letters: O(o) = Ω(ω), Ι(ι)
=Υ(υ) = Η(η)
= ΕΙ(ει) = ΟΙ(οι) = ΥΙ(υι), E(ε) = AI(αι) are sound-alike (homophone letters) and
are used in Greek writing according to specific orthographic rules (i.e.,
part of speech, gender - masculine or feminine-, singular or plural case,
conjugation – nominative, possessive or objective case of the words) in order
to reveal the etymology, that is to say the derivation and precise meaning of
the written words or to distinguish and differentiate the sound alike
(homophone) words. e.g.: καλός & καλώς, καλή & καλεί & καλοί... THE HISTORICAL WRITINGS: ENGLISH, FRENCH, ETC… WRITING Observing the current
writings with Latin characters (English, French, etc…) we see that some words
are written as having vocal sound-alike Latin characters, and the remainder,
as follows: 1) The
words that derive from Greek and Latin are written as if they are optical
images, irrelevant if they may be pronounced somewhat differently. i.e: Greek:
πρόβλημα, τιτάν(ας), Γεωργία, Ευρώπη,
ιδέα, τυπώ(νω), Ολυμπία, φιλοσοφία, τηλέφωνο...... & English: problem (“πρόμπλεμ»), titan(«ταϊταν»), Europe
(«γιούροπ»), idea
(«αϊντία»), type («τάϊπ»), Olympia,
philosophy, telephone... Greek:
ακ(τ)ίς, Γεωργιανός, Συριανός, Λατίνος... & French: action (“axis”), Georgien (“[zeorzan]”), Syrien (“[sirian]”), Latin (“[latan]”)… Latin cluba (κλούμπα -κλούβα), cupa (κούπα), & English club
(«κλάμπ»), cup («κάπ»), America, plus
(«πλας»), imperial («ιμπίριαλ»),
line («λάϊν»), double ("ντάμπλ")…. 2) A word
that sounds like another word adds an additional letter (accidental or according
to the thought of whoever established it graphically) and which, even though
it is written as such, it is not pronounced as such, i.e., the English word
John (pronounced “tzon”), which adds the letter h, because in Hebrew there is the vocal sound – h--: Ioannis = Iochanan. French: grave (in the
singular) &graves (in plural). Here - es is not pronounced, but is added
for the differentiation of the plural case rom the vocal sound of the
singular case. English: to & t(w)o & to(o), rit(e) &
(w)rit(e) & ri(g)t(h).. Here:
w, o, w, e, g, h - are not pronounced, but were added for the differentiation
of the sound-alike words. Similarly: sent & cent & scent, pare & pair & pear, boy & buoy, no & know, sail & sale, grown &
groan, fought & fort, war &
wore, side & sighed, made
& maid, night & knight, soared &
surd, hole & whole, morning & mourning ..... 3) Derivative words are written in the subject topic
similarly with their original, that is to say, they maintain their historical
spelling, irrelevantly if at times the pronunciation of the derivative word
changes because of vocal sound causes (contraction, etc.), e.g., in English
the original word volcano (pronounced (“volkeinoun”, a = ei) and the
derivative volcanic (pronounced “volcanic”, a = a). Similarly: athlete (“άθλιτ”) >
athletic (“αθλέτικ”), busy (“μπάζι») > business (“μπίζνες»), day (“ντέι”) > Sanday
(“σάντι”), live («λάϊβ») >living ("λίβινκ")… It is noted that: 1) The writing
(spelling) of a word as described above remains in the same tense even if its
pronunciation changes or if the word has two or more different
pronunciations, e.g., in French & English while some say, e.g: "de
lanton, mpati, son koner, oyat… ", and others say " di lonton
mponti, sin koneri, choyat or goyat. " , hence, they are all spelled
exactly the same, that is to say: 2) In writing and
spelling a word can be pronounced one way in a given language and differently
in another, e.g., the words: BEAUTE = in English pronounced “mpioyti” and in French
“mpote”. 3) With the Greek or
Latin orthography there are also spelled the words of other languages
(arabic, Jewish, etc.) by way of Greek or Latin, i.e: Greek: algebra,
Emmanouil, Daniel…. = English: Algebra, Emmanuel, Daniel…. 4) For all of the above
reasons writing using the Latin characters: (1) There is disharmony
between spelling and pronunciation. Another words - we pronounce something
else than what we write or we see something but pronounce something else.
This is the phenomenon whereby for the same letter we have five, six, etc.
pronunciations and even to depict syllables and not just one as in Greek and
Latin. For example in English, the English words go, one, on, come, to…,
where the letter O is pronounced sometimes OOY, other times OYA, A, OY…
Similarly with the words: was (goyoz), In many English words
the letters have the same pronunciation as their corresponding Latin, e.g.:
Athens (athens), Italy (itali), and in most others the same letters
(characters) are impossible to precisely tell how they are pronounced or it
is known and understood only if one knows the pronunciation of the entire
word. (2) “Spelling" is
the creation for each word of a specific "optical image", which for
those who know about writing it constitutes one’s "imagination of an
image" in the spelling of each word. This imagined picture is appended
in the mind of the writer to the acoustic picture, that is to say, the
pronouncement of a given word, as well as to its meaning. (3) The time required
to learn the spelling of words is as much as it is needed by the student to
learn one-by-one the spelling of all words, consequently very difficult and
time-consuming. Naturally to spell the words as such in another written
language, as done, e.g. in English (where most of the words are written as
optical images from Latin and Greek) it is much more difficult than to write
the words with the Greek vocal sound-alike letters: Ω & Ο, Η & Υ & Ι … whereby,
based on defined rules one has to only remember few rules and not one-by-one
the spelling of each word. (4) There is no
capability for recording, but also for indicating any pronunciation of a
word. In order to indicate the correct pronunciation of words with Latin
characters in the various dictionaries – in parallel, are utilized the so
called phonetic symbols. That is to say, here we have a type of writing as
auxiliary to another writing!! These are also the
reason that many writers, such as (Saussure, and others) seek the abolishment
in writing with Latin characters and the establishment of some other
alphabet, which would have as many letters as there are vocal sound-alikes.
This is however erroneous, because in this type of spelling it is not
possible to distinguish the sound-alike words The singular and best
solution to this issue is the establishment of Greek writing (spelling)
internationally. THE PHONETICS AND THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF WRITING (ALPHABET & SPELLING) Simply, in Latin spelling
there are no orthographic special characters, such as (accentual mark,
apostrophe, etc.) and the sound-alike letters: Ω Η, ΕΙ,
ΥΙ… that is because the Latinos
copied the Greek alphabet before they could foresee them – and that is the
reason for which Latin is easy to spell, however inferior in capability and
precision than Greek. In this alphabet there are no letters for the
sound-alike δ, γ, θ, characters, because these characters were not being used much in the
Latin language. 2. The current languages
with Latin characters, such as today’s international language ‘English’, are
etymological (historical) and consequently: a) They are difficult to
learn, b) They cannot credibly
record the oral speech, c) in order to indicate
the precise pronunciation of a word they use the so called “PHONETICS
SYMBOLS”. However, these symbols
are too many (about 40, and that is attributed to lack of comprehending as
yet the value of orthographic special characters (solvents, accentual mark
and apostrophe), hence they are difficult to learn and thus the easier and
simpler solution is the utilization of the Greek alphabet, for the following
reasons: A) With only the 20
letters of the Greek alphabet: α, ε, ο, ι, ου
= u, τ, δ, θ, π, β, φ, κ, γ, χ, μ, ν, λ, ρ, σ, ζ - We indicate precisely the pronunciation
(sound-alike characters) of the words, e.g.: “καλό, ψιλί
= good, psili”. This is also the reason that many non-Greek (foreign)
dictionaries indicate the pronunciation of English and other words with Greek
characters and the orthographic special characters (accentual mark, solvents,
etc.) and not with phonetics, writing for example corrosive (pronounced:
korooyzib”…), body (mponti), dog (ntogk)… B) With the capital and
small letters: Α(α), Β(β), Γ(γ)…, as
well as with the sound-alike letters: Ο(ο) & Ω(ω), Η(η) & Ι(ι) & Υ(υ)…, based
upon rules (writing for example, the female gender with –η, the neutral gender with –ο,ι, the verbs with – ω,ει.,etc.), we indicate and record also the
precise pronunciation and etymology (conjugation, type, etc.) of the words,
thus we are helped in the understanding and differentiation of the
sound-alike characters, e.g.: καλό & καλώ, αγαθή & Αγαθή & αγαθοί, ψιλή & ψιλοί & ψηλοί & ψηλή… Thus, for example the
pronunciation of the English sound-alike word “wrait” (= write, right, rite)
in Greek each one would be spelled either with a different sound-alike
character, e.g. “ράϊτ, ράητ, ράϋτ”
or with a different accentual mark for each occasion and not with the
addition of an accidental letter or historical, that is to say (w) rite &
ri (gh) t & rite…. as in English. C) With the
orthographic special characters (accentual mark, apostrophe, etc.) we
indicate the accented and unaccented syllables, the pronunciation without
exceptions, vowel fusion, etc., e.g.: “σ’ όλα & σε όλα & σόλα, κάλος & καλός & καλώς, καλώ, μία & μια, θείος & θεϊκός”… Consequently the Greek system of writing is the
one and only that deserves to become international and the official protocol
of the European Union. Of course, because the
Greek alphabet and spelling are very easy and precise, its globalization will
not only quickly decrease world illiteracy, but will also advance the “Letters,
and Arts & Sciences” and thus the world culture. |
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BIBLIOGRAPHY |
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The
present book is an original study about the Greek language and not a copy of
other works except that section concerning the inclination of the words which
is according to the Grammar by M. Triantaphillidis (according to Greek
Govern, to the instructions by the Ministry of books Education). Books by Adam Krassanakis: 1. Το ελληνικό σύστημα γραφής, Α. ΚΡΑΣΑΝΑΚΗ 2. Η Ελληνική Γλώσσα, Α. ΚΡΑΣΑΝΑΚΗ 3. The
Greek language, by A. KRASSANAKIS 4. Learning
disabilities, by A. KRASSANAKIS 5. Επιστημονική Γλωσσολογία (Linguistics), Α. ΚΡΑΣΑΝΑΚΗ 6. Συντακτικό Ελληνικής Γλώσσας, Α.
ΚΡΑΣΑΝΑΚΗ. 7. Παγκόσμια γραφή, Α. ΚΡΑΣΑΝΑΚΗ 8. Μαθήματα ρητορικής & λογοτεχνίας, Α. ΚΡΑΣΑΝΑΚΗ 9. Ψεύδη – αίσχη για την ελληνική γλώσσα & γραφή, Α.
ΚΡΑΣΑΝΑΚΗ Other books that help us: 1.
Μέγα
Λεξικό Γραμματικής, Ν. ΣΗΦΑΚΗ 2.
Λεξικό
Αρχαίας Ελληνικής, Π. Χ. ΔΟΡΠΑΡΑΚΗ 3.
Γραμματική
Νεοελληνικής Μ. ΤΡΙΑΝΤΑΦΥΛΛΙΔΗ 4.
Γραμματική
Αρχαίας Ελληνικής, Α. ΤΖΑΡΤΖΑΝΟΥ 5.
Γραμματική
Αρχαίας Ελληνικής, Μ. ΟΙΚΟΝΟΜΟΥ 6.
Γραμματική
Νεοελληνικής, Γ. ΠΑΠΑΝΑΣΤΑΣΙΟΥ |
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CONTENTS |
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CHAPTER 1st: Alphabet, signs and
technic of Greek writing ……. σελίδα 3 The Greek alphabet and greek writing system. The mechanism of Greek
writing system. The phthongs and the syllables of words. Differences among
Greek and writing wirh latin characters (English, Germa etc). The Letters and
his kinds: Homophones, vowels & consonants, two digits letters and
diphthongs… Orthographic and punctuation marks etc CHAPTER 2nd: ORTHOGRAPHIC RULES ……………………………. σελίδα 40 CHAPTER 3nd: FALSIES FOR GREEK
LANGUAGE – WRITING ……ελίδα 68 The falsies for different ancient Greek language and for Greek
historical writing. The falsies of Phoenician or Egyptian generation of Greek
Alphabet. The falsies of Long – sort duration and for iconic Greek letters. The Greek writing is the most perfect and the easiest of the world. CHAPTER 4nd: Value & world wide
contribution of Greek writing ελίδα 78 Reasons for which the Greek language and the Greek system of writing
should once again become international and the official protocol of the
European Union. |
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